Overview Hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) exists on a spectrum of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP). NVP refers to symptoms of nausea, vomiting or dry retching commencing in the first trimester, with no other cause identified.1 HG refers to severe, persistent vomiting that may result in malnutrition, dehydration, weight loss and debility due to illness. HG […]

Overview Hydatidiform moles are part of a group of diseases falling under gestational trophoblastic disease. A hydatidiform mole refers to the abnormal growth of trophoblastic cells in the placenta, resulting in edematous placental villi that form hydatidiform structures. It is classified as either partial or complete, causing either abnormal foetal development (resulting in foetal demise) […]

Overviews Maternal infections is a broad term for any infection that is acquired by a pregnant woman antepartum, intrapartum or postpartum. These infections may have detrimental impacts on the mother and the foetus/newborn.1 Maternal infections covered in this page include TORCH infections as well as Group B Streptococcal infection and chorioamnionitis.  TORCH infections are a […]

Overview Pelvic organ prolapse is a condition in which pelvic organs abnormally descend or herniate from their normal attachment sites or their normal position in the pelvis to or beyond the vaginal walls. There are varying degrees of prolapse. In the most severe cases, the pelvic organ can prolapse through the genital hiatus. It can be asymptomatic […]

Overview The menopause means the final menstrual period – diagnosed retrospectively after one year of amenorrhoea. Cessation occurs due to loss of ovarian function. The “declining oocyte pool” theory states that a newborn girl is born with millions of eggs, most of which die by atresia. The average age of menopause is 50, however this can vary […]

Overview Premenstrual syndrome is defined as recurrent moderate psychological and physical symptoms that occur during the luteal phase of menses and resolve with menstruation. Most women of reproductive age experience one or more mild emotional or physical symptoms for one to two days before the onset of menses. These symptoms, such as breast soreness and bloating, […]

Normal Labour Overview  Labour is the period from the onset of regular uterine contractions until expulsion of the placenta. Labour can be either: Labour can be a “true” labour or a “false” labour. Braxton Hicks contractions are mild, often irregular contraction that may occur from 30weeks gestation and often confused as true labour. True labour […]

Overview Physiological Changes in Pregnancy Uterus, Vagina and Breast Physiology changes Uterus (Cervix + Isthmus + Body of uterus) Vagina Breast Endocrine Physiology changes Pituitary Gland  Thyroid hormones Endocrine changes Progesterone Oestrogen Human placentala lactogen Haemtological Physiology Changes Respiratory Physiology Changes Cardiovascular Physiology Changes Urinary Physiology Changes Digestive Physiology changes Clinical Manifestation Early Pregnancy Late Pregnancy […]

Overview Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) comprises a spectrum of inflammatory disorders of the upper female genital tract, including any combination of endometritis, salpingitis, tubo-ovarian abscess, and pelvic peritonitis. Causative organisms are either sexually transmitted (such as C trachomatis, N gonorrhoeae, Mycoplasma genitalium) or endogenous vaginal organisms (for example, Bacteroides species) that ascend into the pelvic […]

Overview Endometrial carcinoma is an epithelial malignancy of the uterine corpus mucosa, usually an adenocarcinoma. Endometrial carcinoma is the most common female genital tract malignancy. Postmenopausal bleeding always needs to be investigated because it can indicate malignant disorders and premalignant conditions, such as endometrial hyperplasia. The most common etiology of postmenopausal bleeding is atrophic endometritis or vaginitis. Epidemiology […]

Overview Cervical cancer is an HPV-related malignancy of the uterine cervical mucosa. Most cervical tumours contain HPV DNA (99.7%) . There are many variants of HPV, HPV-16 and 18 are the 2 most common high-risk types.  Cervical cancer is proceeded by an idenifiable precursor lesion (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN1)) that may progress to invasive cancer. CIN can […]

Overview Anatomy and Physiology Aetiology and Risk Factors More than half of patients with ectopic pregnancy have no risk factors. Risk Factors High Previous ectopic Previous tubal surgery Tubal pathology In utero DES exposure Current IUD use Moderate Infertility Previous cervicitis History of PID Multiple sexual partners Smoking Low Previous pelvic/abdominal surgery Vaginal douching Early […]

Overview Affects 5-10% of pregnancies. Incidence varies between nutritional and genetic factors. Risk of GDM increases with age. Women born in Southern Asia are at particularly higher risk. 50% change of mother to develop Type II Diabetes later in life. Pregnancy Physiology Aetiology and Risk Factors Risk Factors Previous GDM Increase BMI Maternal age >40yo Family […]

Overview Birthweight Complications of prematurity are the underlying reasons for the higher rate of infant mortality and morbidity in preterm infants compared with full-term infants. The risk of complications increases with increasing immaturity. Routine Care The first few minutes The first hours The first day Infants sleep for most of the time and feed sometimes, […]

Overview Polycystic ovary syndrome is a common, lifelong condition that appears to be increasing in prevalence with increasing obesity, and is more common in Indigenous and southeast Asian women. PCOS is the presence of multiple follicular cysts in the ovaries (>12 cysts). PCOS results in hormonal imbalance resulting in the associated signs and symptoms (ie. […]

A healthy 25-year-old woman presents with worsening dysmenorrhea, pain of recent onset in the left lower quadrant, and dyspareunia. She has regular menstrual cycles, and her last menstrual period was 3 weeks before presentation. She has been trying to fall pregnant over the past 10 months without success and she is becoming more concerned. Overview […]