Overview Shoulder impingement syndrome, now more commonly referred to as subacromial pain syndrome (SAPS), is one of the most frequent causes of shoulder pain. It accounts for ~40–65% of shoulder complaints in primary care and sports medicine settings. It occurs due to mechanical compression of the rotator cuff tendons (most commonly supraspinatus) and subacromial bursa […]

Overview Scaphoid fracture is the most common carpal bone fracture, accounting for ~60–70% of all carpal fractures. It occurs most frequently in young adults (15–40 years) following a fall on the outstretched hand (FOOSH). The scaphoid’s tenuous blood supply predisposes to non-union and avascular necrosis, especially in proximal fractures. Early recognition is essential as delayed […]

Overview Chronic compartment syndrome (also known as chronic exertional compartment syndrome or exercise induced compartment syndrome) is an exertional condition in which repetitive activity causes transiently elevated pressure within a closed myofascial compartment, leading to ischemic pain, tightness, and sometimes neurologic symptoms that predictably begin with exercise and abate with rest. It most often affects […]

Overview Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear is one of the most common knee injuries, particularly in young athletes involved in pivoting sports (soccer, basketball, skiing). ACL injuries account for ~50% of all knee ligament injuries, with an incidence of ~68 per 100,000 annually, more common in females due to anatomical and biomechanical risk factors. ACL […]

Overview Achilles tendinopathy & rupture are common causes of posterior ankle pain and disability, particularly in active adults. Tendinopathy presents with chronic pain, stiffness, and impaired function, while rupture is an acute injury characterised by a sudden “pop” and loss of plantarflexion power. Achilles tendon injuries are increasingly prevalent due to sports participation, with rupture […]

Overview Toxic Multinodular Goitre (TMNG) is the second most common cause of hyperthyroidism caused by a long-standing goitre and/or iodine deficiency which results in an increased risk of mutation and consequent TSH-independent autonomic function of thyroid nodules to produce excess thyroid hormones. Common clinical manifestations include hyperthyroidism and a painless thyroid goitre with palpable nodules. […]

Overview Cryoglobulinaemic vasculitis is an immune complex–mediated small to medium vessel vasculitis caused by circulating cryoglobulins—immunoglobulins that precipitate below 37 °C and redissolve on warming. These immune complexes deposit in vessel walls, activate complement (typically with marked C4 consumption), and drive leukocytoclastic vasculitis. “Mixed” CV (types II and III) is most often linked to hepatitis […]

Overview Post‑splenectomy immunodeficiency refers to the increased susceptibility to infection following removal (or functional loss) of the spleen. The spleen plays a critical role in filtering bloodborne pathogens, especially encapsulated bacteria, and in mounting both innate and adaptive immune responses. Loss of splenic function leads to impaired opsonisation, reduced IgM production, and defective clearance of […]

Overview Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease of unknown cause, characterised by the formation of non‑caseating granulomas in affected organs. Pulmonary involvement occurs in ~90% of patients, making it the most common manifestation. Global prevalence varies widely (e.g., 3.7/100,000 in Japan vs. 28.2/100,000 in Finland), with higher rates in Black Americans and Northern Europeans. Peak […]