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# Armando Hasudungan: By Visualising Medicine

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ruptureAchilles tendonAcid-base homeostasisAction potentialActivated charcoalActive extension of the kneeAcute anterior uveitisAcute Atrial FibrillationAcute dyspneaAcute hepatic failureAcute kidney injuryacute limb ischemiaAcute lung injuryAcute ManagementAcute pericarditisAcute phaseAcute Pulmonary OedemaAcute Renal FailureAcute ruptureAcute single overdoseAdaptive immunityAddison&#039;s diseaseAdenylate cyclase toxinADH deficiencyAdolescent growth spurtAdrenal insufficiencyAdrenalineAdrenaline infusionAetiologyAgentAgglutininAlbuminAlcoholAlcohol ConsumptionAlfredson protocolAlizarin red stainingAlk phosphataseAlpha-1 agonistsALTaltered biomechanicsalveolar damagealveolar epitheliumAmastigotesamiodaroneAmiodarone toxicityAmoebic liver abscessAmount of tabletsAmphetamineAmyloidosisANAAnalgesiaAnalgesicAnatomical snuffboxAnchoring virulent factorsAnemiaAngina pectorisankle motionAnkylosing spondylitisAnkylosisanterior compartmentAnterior knee painanterolateralAnti-centromere (ACA)Anti-RNA polymerase IIIAnti-Scl-70Anti-TNF agentsAntiarrhythmicsAnticholinergic syndromeAntidepressantsAntidiuretic hormoneAntihypertensive InfusionAntihypertensivesAntiphospholipid antibodies (aPL)Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS)Antiphospholipid syndrome classification criteriaAntiplatelet therapyAntipsychoticsAntipyreticantiretroviralsAnxietyaortic dissectionAortic regurgitationAortitisApophysisAPTTAquaporin 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (...) 14
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## Clinical Presentations
- [Peripheral Neuropathy](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/peripheral-neuropathy/): Causes of sensorimotor polyneuropathy
- [Acute Kidney Injury](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/acute-kidney-injury/): 75yo John presents to the hospital with a lower respiratory tract infection. His blood test show eGFR is 40 and creatinine &gt;100. His previous blood test earlier in the year eGFR 79 and creatinine 65. You diagnose him with acute kidney injury.
- [Hypertension](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/hypertension/): Hypertension is defined as BP ≥140/90 mmHg. Hypertension can be divided into Primary or Secondary. The main goal of treatment is to decrease the risk of mortality and of cardiovascular and renal morbidity.
- [Orthostatic Hypotension](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/orthostatic-hypotension/): Orthostatic hypotension is an important, treatable cause of dizziness, syncope and falls.&nbsp;Less frequently it leads to visual disruption, dyspnea on exertion, angina and even stroke. Orthostatic hypotension also known as postural hypotension results from a failed sympathetic response when standing upright resulting in decrease venous return and cardiac output causing dizziness, syncope and/or fall. Important to note that a common problem in patient with orthostatic hypotension is the concurrent presence of supine hypertension.
- [Eye Trauma](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/eye-trauma/): History
- [Parkinson’s Presentation](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/parkinsons-presentation/): Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and a wide spectrum of non-motor symptoms including sleep disorders, hyposmia, bladder and bowel dysfunction, fatigue, dementia, and other neuropsychiatric symptom. Although the disease has no cure, available treatments effectively control motor symptoms and improve quality of life. Parkinson disease affects approximately 1 percent of persons older than 60 years, and up to 4 percent of those older than 80 years.
- [Rash](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/rash/): Distribution
- [Altered level of Conciousness](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/altered-level-of-conciousness/): Differential diagnosis&nbsp;of altered level of Consciousness - AEIOUTIPS)
- [Bradycardia](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/bradycardia/): Overview Bradycardia refers to heart rate &lt;60/min in an adult Bradycardias are classified as regular or irregular, narrow complex or wide complex Differential diagnosis causing bradycardia Cardiac disease Myocardial ischaemia / infarction Myocarditis Cardiomyopathies Hypoxia Electrolyte disturbance - Hyperkalemia Medications, poisonings and toxic exposures Digoxin Beta blockers Calcium channel blockers Amiodarone Clonidine Hypothermia Hypothyroidism Raised intracranial pressure (Cushing response) Infections (Lyme disease, diphtheria, typhoid fever) Autoimmune - Systemic lupus erythematosis Infiltrative disorders (e.g. sarcoidosis, amyloidosis) Physiological causes athletes vagal response History Past medical history Cardiac history and risk Medical conditions - screen for Hypothyroidism Autoimmune/ infiltrative disease Medication - digoxin, beta-blocker, calcium channel blockers or other antiarythmics Examination General observation Vitals Low body temperature? Cushings triad ECG Hyperkalaemia - Tall tented T-waves Cardiovascular examination Respiratory examination Acute Management ABCD Oxygen IV access Tredenleberg position if hypotensive ECG Drug: Atropine Transthoracic pacing Low dose adrenaline infusion - if transthoracic pacing unavailable CPR - if deteriorating Investigations FBC EUC Hyperkalaemia LFT CRP Cardiac biomarkers Cardiac ultrasound
- [Abdominal Trauma](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/abdominal-trauma/): Abdominal trauma can result in injuries that are intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal
- [Chest Trauma](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/chest-trauma/): Thoracic trauma causes injuries to the chest wall, lungs, great vessels, and heart. It is clinically divided into blunt and penetrating injuries.
- [Spine and Spinal Cord Trauma](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/spine-and-spinal-cord-trauma/): Devastatingly&nbsp;disabling&nbsp;injury. Can&nbsp;be&nbsp;missed&nbsp;as&nbsp;ambulant&nbsp;patients&nbsp;may&nbsp;have&nbsp;an&nbsp; unstable&nbsp;vertebral&nbsp;injury. Up&nbsp;to&nbsp;10%&nbsp;of&nbsp;unconscious&nbsp;patients&nbsp;have&nbsp;a significant&nbsp;vertebral&nbsp;injury. Most common cause of spinal injuries include MVA, Falls and pedestrian on roads. Ask yourself:
- [Head and Brain Trauma](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/head-and-spinal-trauma/): Preparation
- [↓↑Potassium (Hyperkalaemia and Hypokalaemia)](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/hyperkalaemia-hyperkalemia/): Potassium (K+) is an important ion in the body. K+ is found mainly intracellularly (inside the cells) whereas sodium (Na+) is found extracellularly (outside the cells).
- [Jaundice](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/jaundice/): Jaundice or icterus is the yellowish discoloration of the skin and sclerae from increased levels of bilirubin, a bile pigment derived chiefly from the breakdown of hemoglobin.
- [Anaemia](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/anaemia/): Anaemia (DRAFT)
- [Protected: Failure to Thrive](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/failure-to-thrive/): Failure to thrive in childhood is a state of undernutrition due to inadequate caloric intake, inadequate caloric absorption, or excessive caloric expenditure. Failure to thrive is not a syndrome, rather it is a physical sign that a child is receiving inadequate nutrition for optimal growth and development. Approximately 80 percent of children with failure to thrive present before 18 months of age.
- [Petechial, Purpuric Rash](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/purpuric-rash/): At least 90% of children with fever and petechiae will NOT have meningococcal disease. However, recognition and early treatment of the child with meningococcal disease is paramount. All children with fever and petechiae should be reviewed by a registrar or consultant. If invasive meningococcal disease is suspected, administer parenteral antibiotics immediately, but do not delay hospital admission.
- [Poisoning and Envenomation](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/poisoning-and-envenomation/): &quot;All things are poison and nothing is without poison, only the dose permits something not to be poisonous.”-Paracelsus
- [Splenomegaly](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/splenomegaly/): What does the spleen do?
- [Cough](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/cough-2/): Young children develop 6-12 respiratory tract infections per year, usually accompanied by cough. In most children, the cough is self-limiting (1-3 weeks), but it is sometimes prolonged. Cough that lasts for more then 3 weeks should be investigated.
- [Wheeze](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/wheeze/): The presence of a wheeze implies narrowing of airways of any size throughout the proximal conducting airways. Wheezing occurs during the prolonged expiratory phase. Children wheeze more often than adults because of physical differences.
- [Constipation](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/constipation/)
- [Bone Lump (Bone Tumour)](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/bone-lump/): Bone tumours can be benign or malignant. Benign is much more common 99% then malignant bone tumours (
- [Acute Pelvic Pain](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/acute-pelvic-pain/): Rule out pregnancy in an fertile female presenting with acute pelvic/abdominal pain!
- [Chronic Pelvic Pain](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/chronic-pelvic-pain/): a
- [Abnormal Uterine Bleeding](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/abnormal-uterine-bleeding/): Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is a common gynecologic complaint, accounting for one-third of outpatient visits to gynecologists.&nbsp;AUB can be caused by a wide variety of local and systemic diseases or related to medications.&nbsp;The most common etiologies in nonpregnant women are structural uterine pathology, anovulation, disorders of hemostasis, or neoplasia. This section will mainly focus on adults who are not pregnant. AUB includes amenorrhoea, menorrhagia, polymenorrhoea, oligomenorhea, intermenstrual bleeding, etc.
- [Dymorphism](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/dymorphism/): Dysmorphic, which literally means ‘abnormal form’, refers to an unusual appearance, usually of the face.&nbsp;Accurate syndrome diagnosis is important to give&nbsp;information about prognosis, associated problems,&nbsp;recurrence risk and support groups for families.&nbsp;Diagnoses are made by thorough clinical assessment&nbsp;followed by use of aids such as computerized syndrome&nbsp;databases.
- [Acute Urinary Retention](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/urinary-retention/): Urinary retention is the inability to voluntarily void urine. This condition can be acute or chronic. Causes of urinary retention are numerous and can be classified as obstructive, infectious and inflammatory, pharmacologic, neurologic, or other.
- [Arthritis](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/arthritis/): 75yo presents with right knee pain gradually worsening over past year. Also complains of pain and stiffness around finger joints particularly in the morning.
- [↑↓Na (Hypernaturaemia and Hyponaturemia](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/hyponaturemia/): Hyponatremia is commonly defined as a serum sodium concentration below 130 mmol/L. 
- [Syncope](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/syncope/): Syncope is defined as a transient loss of consciousness and postural tone from reduced cerebral perfusion, followed by spontaneous and full recovery
- [Dizziness and Vertigo](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/dizziness/): Dizziness is a broad term used by patient to describe a range of sensations that include vertigo, presyncope, imbalance sensation and light-headedness. Vertigo describes a spinning sensation but sometimes a sensation of falling or pitching. Presyncope is a result of decrease global perfusion to the brain resulting in near fainting sensation (syncope is a transient loss of consciousness due to decrease perfusion to brain). Sensation of imbalance describes dysequilibrium and is usually of a central cause such as the brain and brain stem. Patients and with mental health can also describe a sensation of light-headedness often as a result hyperventilation or emotion stress.
- [Dysphagia](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/dysphagia/): Dysphagia, from the Greek dys (difficulty, disordered) and phagia (to eat), refers to the sensation that food is hindered in its passage from the mouth to the stomach.&nbsp;Dysphagia always indicates&nbsp;malfunction of some type in the oropharynx or esophagus, although associated psychiatric disorders can amplify this symptom.&nbsp;Dysphagia affects up to 15% of persons age 65 or older.
- [Cough](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/cough/): Cough is a common presenting symptom in primary care. Cough is a defensive reflex mechanism that clears secretions from the upper airways of the respiratory tract; it is triggered by the stimulation of a complex reflex arc. Chronic cough can be associated with significant distress and impairment in quality of life.
- [Chronic Dyspnea](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/chronic-dyspnea/): Chronic dyspnea is shortness of breath that lasts more than one month. The perception of dyspnea varies based on behavioural and physiologic responses.
- [Acute Dyspnea](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/acute-dyspnea/): Dyspnea is a subjective experience of breathing discomfort; patients experience qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity. Acute dyspnea might be secondary to an acute problem, or it might be an exacerbation of an existing disease (eg, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure).
- [Chest Pain](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/chest-pain/): The most common and important cardiovascular symptom. It is also a very important symptom for the lungs and oesophagus, where the character, pattern of pain and associated symptoms differ. Initial management include oxygen, analgesia, nitrates (to rule in MI) and investigations with ECG and chest X-ray are&nbsp;urgent&nbsp;for patients who present with chest pain +&nbsp;grave signs and symptoms such as diaphoresis, tachycardia, hypotension, fever and sudden dyspnea. You want to rule out life-threatening causes first which are discussed below.
- [Haematuria](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/haematuria/): Haematuria is a common symptom with a multitude of differentials. Common urological causes of haematuria include urinary tract infection and ureteric and renal stones, but concurrent pathology should be suspected if haematuria is significant or persistent. Importantly, if benign conditions are excluded, and the haematuria continues, further investigation is advised, as this may be the only sign of an underlying genitourinary malignancy.
- [Knee Pain](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/knee-pain/): Knee pain is common. It is important to first identify if it is acute or chronic pain. For acute knee pain it is important to rule out septic arthritis as this can lead to irreversible knee damage. The persons age also help with the possible differential diagnosis of knee pain.
- [Hypercalcaemia](https://armandoh.org/clinical-presentations/another-example/): The diagnosis of hypercalcemia most often is made incidentally when a high calcium level is detected in blood samples. The principal challenges in the management of hypercalcemia are distinguishing primary hyperparathyroidism from conditions that will not respond to parathyroidectomy and knowing when it is appropriate to refer the patient for surgery.

## Diseases
- [Testicular Torsion](https://armandoh.org/disease/testicular-torsion-2/): Testicular torsion is a urological emergency caused by twisting of the spermatic cord, leading to acute interruption of blood flow to the testis and rapid ischemia. It most commonly occurs in adolescents (peak 12–18 years) but can occur at any age, including neonates.&nbsp;The incidence is approximately 1 in 4,000 males under 25 years. Early recognition is critical, as testicular viability declines significantly after 6 hours, with high risk of infarction beyond 12 hours. Risk factors include the bell-clapper deformity, trauma, and sudden movement.
- [Snapping Hip Syndrome (Coxa Saltans)](https://armandoh.org/disease/snapping-hip-syndrome-coxa-saltans/): Snapping Hip Syndrome (SHS) is characterized by an audible or palpable “snap” around the hip during motion; it may be painless or painful and can be unilateral or bilateral. Prevalence estimates suggest up to ~5–10% of the general population may experience snapping to some degree, with higher rates in dancers and athletes who work their hips through extreme ranges of motion. Most cases respond to conservative care.
- [Prostatitis](https://armandoh.org/disease/prostatitis/): Prostatitis refers to a spectrum of conditions involving inflammation of the prostate gland, ranging from acute bacterial infection to chronic pelvic pain syndromes. It is a common urological condition affecting men of all ages, particularly those aged 30–50 years.&nbsp;The National Institutes of Health (NIH) classifies prostatitis into four categories: acute bacterial, chronic bacterial, chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS), and asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. Acute bacterial prostatitis is usually caused by gram-negative organisms such as E. coli, while CP/CPPS is the most common subtype and is often non-infectious.
- [VEXAS Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/disease/vexas-syndrome/): VEXAS syndrome is a late-onset, adult autoinflammatory disease caused by acquired somatic mutations in the UBA1 gene, leading to dysregulated innate immunity, systemic inflammation, and overlapping haematologic and rheumatologic manifestations.&nbsp;
- [Osteonecrosis of the Hip](https://armandoh.org/disease/osteonecrosis-of-the-hip/): Osteonecrosis of the hip, usually referring to osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH), is a progressive disorder caused by compromised subchondral blood supply leading to death of osteocytes and marrow elements, failed structural repair, subchondral fracture, femoral head collapse, and eventually secondary hip osteoarthritis.&nbsp;
- [Amyloidosis (Overview)](https://armandoh.org/disease/amyloidosis-overview/): Amyloidosis is a disorder in which misfolded proteins aggregate into insoluble beta-pleated sheet fibrils and deposit extracellularly in tissues, leading to progressive organ dysfunction. It may be systemic or localized.&nbsp;
- [Behçet’s Disease](https://armandoh.org/disease/behcets-disease-2/): The two most commonly used classifications for Behçet’s syndrome are the International Study Group for Behçet’s Disease (ISG) classification and the International Criteria for Behçet’s Disease (ICBD). A pathergy test is performed with at least three skin punctures, and a positive reaction is indicated by a papular reaction that is at least 2 mm in diameter and surrounded by erythema or the development of a pustule reaction within 24 to 48 hours.&nbsp;
- [Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria +/- angioedema](https://armandoh.org/disease/chronic-spontaneous-urticaria-angioedema/): Chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) is a mast-cell–driven skin disorder defined by recurrent wheals (hives), angioedema, or both for &gt;6 weeks without a specific external trigger, with a point prevalence around 0.5–1% and a female predominance; median disease duration is ~2–5 years, but a subset persists longer and markedly impairs quality of life and work productivity. Autoimmune mechanisms (type I “autoallergic” IgE-mediated and type IIb IgG-autoantibody–mediated) account for a large fraction of cases, and comorbidities include atopy, autoimmune thyroid disease, and anxiety/depression.
- [Anaphylaxis ](https://armandoh.org/disease/anaphylaxis/): Anaphylaxis is a severe, systemic hypersensitivity reaction that is rapid in onset and potentially fatal, most often triggered by foods, medications, or venom; global incidence is ~50–112 per 100,000 person-years with rising emergency presentations in many regions, including Australia .&nbsp;
- [Adult onset Still’s Disease](https://armandoh.org/disease/adult-onset-stills-disease/): Adult Onset Still’s Disease (AOSD) is a complex multisystemic autoinflammatory disease characterised by recurrent episodes of spiking fever (&gt; 39–40°C), pink–salmon transient skin rash, and the presence of arthralgia or polyarthritis. First described by Eric Bywaters in 1971 it closely resembles systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis (Still’s disease).
- [Shoulder Impingement Syndrome (Subacromial Pain Syndrome)](https://armandoh.org/disease/shoulder-impingement-syndrome-subacromial-pain-syndrome/): Shoulder impingement syndrome, now more commonly referred to as subacromial pain syndrome (SAPS), is one of the most frequent causes of shoulder pain. It accounts for ~40–65% of shoulder complaints in primary care and sports medicine settings. It occurs due to mechanical compression of the rotator cuff tendons (most commonly supraspinatus) and subacromial bursa beneath the coracoacromial arch, especially during arm elevation. Repetitive overhead activity, structural narrowing, or rotator cuff dysfunction all contribute.
- [Scaphoid Fracture](https://armandoh.org/disease/scaphoid-fracture/): Scaphoid fracture is the most common carpal bone fracture, accounting for ~60–70% of all carpal fractures. It occurs most frequently in young adults (15–40 years) following a fall on the outstretched hand (FOOSH). The scaphoid’s tenuous blood supply predisposes to non-union and avascular necrosis, especially in proximal fractures. Early recognition is essential as delayed or missed diagnosis is common and may lead to long-term disability.
- [Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome (Exercise-induced Compartment Syndrome)](https://armandoh.org/disease/exercise-induced-compartment-syndrome/): Chronic compartment syndrome (also known as chronic exertional compartment syndrome or exercise induced compartment syndrome) is an exertional condition in which repetitive activity causes transiently elevated pressure within a closed myofascial compartment, leading to ischemic pain, tightness, and sometimes neurologic symptoms that predictably begin with exercise and abate with rest. It most often affects young, physically active people (runners, team-sport athletes, military recruits) and may account for a substantial proportion of exercise-related lower-leg pain; upper-limb cases occur in rowers, climbers, weightlifters, and motorcycle racers. 1,2,3,4 Risk increases with high training volumes, running gait mechanics that increase anterior compartment demand, and fascial stiffness; outcomes range from successful return to sport with gait retraining or fasciotomy to persistent or recurrent symptoms if diagnosis is delayed. 1,5,6
- [ACL Tear](https://armandoh.org/disease/acl-tear/): Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear is one of the most common knee injuries, particularly in young athletes involved in pivoting sports (soccer, basketball, skiing). ACL injuries account for ~50% of all knee ligament injuries, with an incidence of ~68 per 100,000 annually, more common in females due to anatomical and biomechanical risk factors. ACL tears cause instability, impaired performance, and predispose to early osteoarthritis if untreated.
- [Achilles Tendinopathy &amp; Rupture](https://armandoh.org/disease/achilles-tendinopathy-rupture/): Achilles tendinopathy &amp; rupture are common causes of posterior ankle pain and disability, particularly in active adults. Tendinopathy presents with chronic pain, stiffness, and impaired function, while rupture is an acute injury characterised by a sudden “pop” and loss of plantarflexion power. Achilles tendon injuries are increasingly prevalent due to sports participation, with rupture incidence ~18/100,000 annually, most often in men aged 30–50 years.
- [Toxic Multinodular Goitre](https://armandoh.org/disease/toxic-multinodular-goitre/): Toxic Multinodular Goitre (TMNG) is the second most common cause of hyperthyroidism caused by a long-standing goitre and/or iodine deficiency which results in an increased risk of mutation and consequent TSH-independent autonomic function of thyroid nodules to produce excess thyroid hormones. Common clinical manifestations include hyperthyroidism and a painless thyroid goitre with palpable nodules. The disease can be addressed and treated early on, with a good prognosis and clinical outcomes.
- [Cryoglobulinaemic Vasculitis](https://armandoh.org/disease/cryoglobulinaemic-vasculitis-2/): Cryoglobulinaemic vasculitis is an immune complex–mediated small to medium vessel vasculitis caused by circulating cryoglobulins—immunoglobulins that precipitate below 37 °C and redissolve on warming. These immune complexes deposit in vessel walls, activate complement (typically with marked C4 consumption), and drive leukocytoclastic vasculitis. “Mixed” CV (types II and III) is most often linked to hepatitis C virus (HCV), autoimmune diseases, or B-cell clonal disorders, while type I CV is monoclonal and associated with plasma-cell dyscrasias or lymphoproliferative disorders. Adults are most commonly affected.
- [Post‑splenectomy Immunodeficiency](https://armandoh.org/disease/post%e2%80%91splenectomy-immunodeficiency/): Post‑splenectomy immunodeficiency refers to the increased susceptibility to infection following removal (or functional loss) of the spleen. The spleen plays a critical role in filtering bloodborne pathogens, especially encapsulated bacteria, and in mounting both innate and adaptive immune responses. Loss of splenic function leads to impaired opsonisation, reduced IgM production, and defective clearance of abnormal erythrocytes and immune complexes. The most feared complication is Overwhelming Post‑Splenectomy Infection (OPSI) — a rapidly progressive, often fatal sepsis, most commonly due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae. Incidence of OPSI is highest in the first 1–3 years post‑splenectomy but remains elevated lifelong.
- [Pulmonary Sarcoidosis](https://armandoh.org/disease/pulmonary-sarcoidosis/): Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease of unknown cause, characterised by the formation of non‑caseating granulomas in affected organs. Pulmonary involvement occurs in ~90% of patients, making it the most common manifestation. Global prevalence varies widely (e.g., 3.7/100,000 in Japan vs. 28.2/100,000 in Finland), with higher rates in Black Americans and Northern Europeans. Peak onset is between 20–40 years, with a female predominance. Risk factors include genetic susceptibility (HLA‑DRB1 alleles), environmental exposures (inhaled antigens, bioaerosols), and certain occupations (firefighting, metalworking). Major complications of pulmonary sarcoidosis include pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, and respiratory failure.
- [Chronic Lower Limb Ischaemia: Intermittent Claudication](https://armandoh.org/disease/chronic-lower-limb-ischaemia-intermittent-claudication/): Chronic lower limb ischemia can be classified using the Fontaine classification:
- [Acute Limb Ischaemia](https://armandoh.org/disease/acute-limb-ischaemia-2/): Acute limb ischaemia refers to any sudden decrease in limb perfusion that causes a potential threat to viability. It is associated with pain, motor and sensory loss, and cold sensation. It affects one in about 6000 of the population1 and is more common in the lower limb, with less than 17% of cases affecting the upper limb4. If left untreated, it can lead to limb loss or even death3.
- [RA Related Pleural Effusion](https://armandoh.org/disease/ra-related-pleural-effusion/): Rheumatoid pleural effusion (RPE) is an uncommon extra‑articular manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), occurring in ~2–5% of patients, more often in middle‑aged men with high rheumatoid factor (RF) titres, despite RA being more common in women. It typically presents during active disease or in patients with rheumatoid nodules, but can occasionally precede joint symptoms. RPE is usually unilateral, exudative, and associated with very low pleural fluid glucose and pH. Complications include pleural thickening, trapped lung, and chronic fibrothorax.
- [Rheumatoid Arthritis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease (RA-ILD)](https://armandoh.org/disease/rheumatoid-arthritis-associated-interstitial-lung-disease-ra-ild/): Rheumatoid arthritis-associated interstitial lung disease (RA-ILD) is a serious extra-articular manifestation of RA, affecting up to 10% of RA patients clinically, though subclinical involvement may be present in up to 60% on HRCT. It typically presents in the 5th–6th decade, with a male predominance and is a leading cause of RA-related mortality. The most common histopathological subtype is usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP), which carries a worse prognosis than nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP). Risk factors include smoking, high RA disease activity, anti-CCP positivity, and MUC5B promoter variant. Complications include progressive pulmonary fibrosis and respiratory failure.
- [Sjögren’s-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease ](https://armandoh.org/disease/sjogrens-associated-interstitial-lung-disease/): Sjögren’s-associated interstitial lung disease (Sjögren’s-ILD) is a significant extra-glandular manifestation of primary Sjögren’s disease (pSS), occurring in ~9–20% of patients clinically, with subclinical involvement detectable in up to 50% on HRCT. It may precede sicca symptoms or develop late in the disease course. The most common ILD pattern is nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), followed by usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP), organizing pneumonia (OP), and lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia (LIP). Risk factors include older age, male sex, smoking, anti-Ro/SSA positivity, and high disease activity. The most important complication is progressive pulmonary fibrosis leading to respiratory failure.
- [Systemic Sclerosis-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease ](https://armandoh.org/disease/systemic-sclerosis-associated-interstitial-lung-disease/): Systemic sclerosis–associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) is one of the most common and severe internal organ manifestations of systemic sclerosis (SSc), occurring in up to 50–60% of patients on HRCT, with clinically significant disease in ~25–30%. It is a major cause of SSc-related mortality. The most frequent histopathological pattern is nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), followed by usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP). Risk factors include diffuse cutaneous SSc, anti-topoisomerase I (Scl-70) antibody positivity, male sex, African-American ethnicity, and early disease onset. The most important complication is progressive pulmonary fibrosis leading to respiratory failure and death.
- [X-linked Agammaglobulinaemia (XLA / Bruton’s Disease)](https://armandoh.org/disease/x-linked-agammaglobulinaemia-xla-brutons-disease-2/): X-linked agammaglobulinaemia (XLA) is a rare primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations in the Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) gene, leading to failure of B-cell maturation. It results in profound hypogammaglobulinaemia and susceptibility to recurrent bacterial infections, particularly with encapsulated organisms. It usually presents after 6 months of age (once maternal IgG wanes). Prevalence is ~1 in 200,000 live male births.
- [Hyperemesis Gravidarum](https://armandoh.org/disease/hyperemesis-gravidarum/): Hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) exists on a spectrum of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP). NVP refers to symptoms of nausea, vomiting or dry retching commencing in the first trimester, with no other cause identified.1 HG refers to severe, persistent vomiting that may result in malnutrition, dehydration, weight loss and debility due to illness. HG is a serious illness of pregnancy and may lead to fatality.2
- [Critical Limb Ischaemia](https://armandoh.org/disease/critical-limb-ischaemia/): Critical limb ischaemia (CLI) represents grade III and IV chronic limb ischaemia (based on the Fontaine classification). It presents with rest pain, breakdown of skin and inability to heal an injury, which can lead to infection or gangrene. If left untreated it may be necessary to amputate the affected limb. CLI develops in 1% to 3% of patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD).
- [Chronic Upper Limb Ischaemia ](https://armandoh.org/disease/chronic-upper-limb-ischaemia/): Chronic upper limb ischaemia is a form of peripheral arterial disease that results in a symptomatic reduced blood supply to the upper limb. The common symptoms are weakness, cramps, pain, and digital ischaemia/gangrene. Upper limb ischaemia occurs less frequently than lower limb ischaemia.&nbsp;
- [Wiskott–Aldrich Syndrome ](https://armandoh.org/disease/wiskott-aldrich-syndrome/): Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome is a rare X-linked recessive primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations in the WAS gene, leading to defective actin cytoskeleton regulation in hematopoietic cells. It presents with the triad of eczema, recurrent infections, and thrombocytopenia with small platelets. Patients are prone to autoimmunity and malignancy. Incidence is ~1 in 100,000 live male births. Without curative therapy (HSCT), prognosis is poor.
- [Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)](https://armandoh.org/disease/severe-combined-immunodeficiency-scid/): Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is the most severe form of primary immunodeficiency, characterised by profound defects in both humoral (B-cell) and cellular (T-cell) immunity. It presents in infancy with recurrent, severe, and opportunistic infections, chronic diarrhoea, and failure to thrive. Without curative therapy, most infants die within the first year of life. Incidence is ~1 in 50,000–100,000 live births. Newborn screening with T-cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) has enabled earlier detection.
- [Selective IgA Deficiency ](https://armandoh.org/disease/selective-iga-deficiency/): Selective IgA deficiency is the most common primary immunodeficiency, defined by very low or absent serum IgA levels with normal levels of other immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM). Many patients are asymptomatic, but some develop recurrent mucosal infections, allergic disease, or autoimmune disorders. Prevalence is estimated at 1:300 to 1:700 in Caucasian populations. Diagnosis is often incidental on routine blood tests, though symptomatic cases usually present in childhood or early adulthood.
- [Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency](https://armandoh.org/disease/leukocyte-adhesion-deficiency/): Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) is a rare primary immunodeficiency characterised by recurrent bacterial and fungal infections, impaired wound healing, and absence of pus formation due to defective leukocyte adhesion and migration. It results from genetic defects in leukocyte integrins or signalling pathways, preventing neutrophil extravasation from blood vessels into tissues. LAD has an estimated incidence of 1 per 100,000–200,000 live births. The most common and severe form is LAD type 1 (CD18/β2 integrin deficiency).
- [Hyper-IgE Syndrome (Job’s Syndrome)](https://armandoh.org/disease/hyper-ige-syndrome-jobs-syndrome/): Hyper-IgE syndrome (HIES) is a rare primary immunodeficiency characterised by markedly elevated serum IgE, recurrent staphylococcal skin and lung infections, eczema, and connective tissue/ skeletal abnormalities. Most commonly caused by autosomal dominant mutations in STAT3, it results in impaired Th17 cell differentiation and defective neutrophil chemotaxis. Autosomal recessive forms (DOCK8, TYK2 mutations) present with more severe viral infections and malignancy risk. Estimated prevalence is &lt;1 in 1,000,000.
- [DiGeorge Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/disease/digeorge-syndrome/): DiGeorge syndrome (22q11.2 deletion syndrome) is a congenital immunodeficiency and multisystem disorder caused by a microdeletion on chromosome 22. It leads to defective development of the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches, resulting in thymic hypoplasia/aplasia, hypocalcaemia due to parathyroid hypoplasia, and congenital heart defects. Prevalence is estimated at 1 in 4000 live births. Clinical presentation varies from severe neonatal disease with immunodeficiency and cardiac defects to milder phenotypes presenting later in life.
- [Complement Deficiencies](https://armandoh.org/disease/complement-deficiencies/): Complement deficiencies are rare primary immunodeficiencies resulting from inherited absence or dysfunction of complement proteins, regulators, or receptors. They predispose to recurrent bacterial infections, autoimmune disease (particularly systemic lupus erythematosus–like syndromes), and in some cases angioedema. Complement proteins play a central role in innate immunity by opsonisation, chemotaxis, and direct lysis of pathogens via the membrane attack complex (MAC). Overall prevalence is low but varies depending on the specific pathway; deficiencies of terminal components (C5–C9) are strongly associated with recurrent Neisseria infections.
- [Common Variable Immunodeficiency](https://armandoh.org/disease/common-variable-immunodeficiency/): Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most frequent clinically significant primary antibody deficiency, characterised by hypogammaglobulinaemia and impaired antibody responses. It typically presents with recurrent bacterial infections, autoimmunity, granulomatous disease, and an increased risk of malignancy. CVID affects both sexes equally, with a prevalence of ~1 in 25,000–50,000 individuals. Diagnosis is often delayed, with onset usually in childhood or early adulthood. Despite “common” in its name, it remains rare, though more frequently encountered than severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) or chronic granulomatous disease (CGD).
- [Hydatidiform Mole (Molar Pregnancy)](https://armandoh.org/disease/hydatidiform-mole-molar-pregnancy/): Hydatidiform mole (molar pregnancy) there are two types:
- [Chronic Granulomatous Disease ](https://armandoh.org/disease/chronic-granulomatous-disease/): Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is a rare, inherited primary immunodeficiency characterised by defective function of the NADPH oxidase enzyme complex in phagocytes, leading to failure of the oxidative burst required for intracellular killing of pathogens. This results in recurrent, often life-threatening bacterial and fungal infections, particularly with catalase-positive organisms, and predisposes to granuloma formation that can obstruct hollow viscera. 
- [Microscopic Polyangiitis ](https://armandoh.org/disease/microscopic-polyangiitis/): Microscopic polyangiitis (MPA) is a small-vessel necrotizing vasculitis, commonly associated with myeloperoxidase-ANCA (MPO-ANCA) positivity. It typically presents with glomerulonephritis and pulmonary capillaritis, but does not involve granulomatous inflammation, distinguishing it from GPA.Incidence: ~3–24 cases per million annually; more common in middle-aged adults and slightly more frequent in males. 1
- [Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis](https://armandoh.org/disease/eosinophilic-granulomatosis-with-polyangiitis/): EGPA (formerly Churg-Strauss syndrome) is a rare, small-to-medium vessel necrotizing vasculitis characterized by asthma, eosinophilia, and extravascular granulomas. It commonly affects the lungs, skin, peripheral nerves, and heart. Annual incidence: ~1–3 per million; peak onset in 40s–60s; no significant gender bias. Strongly associated with MPO-ANCA positivity in ~40–60% of patients; others are ANCA-negative.
- [AC Joint Separation](https://armandoh.org/disease/ac-joint-separation/): Acromioclavicular (AC) joint separation is a common shoulder injury, usually sustained from direct trauma such as a fall onto the tip of the shoulder. It involves varying degrees of injury to the stabilising structures of the AC joint — primarily the acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular ligaments. Clinical presentation ranges from localised tenderness and mild pain to obvious deformity with functional limitation, depending on the severity. The Rockwood classification system (Types I–VI) is commonly used to grade these injuries. Most low-grade injuries are managed conservatively with rest, sling support, and physiotherapy, while higher-grade injuries or those causing persistent dysfunction may require surgical stabilisation.
- [Hyperlipidaemia](https://armandoh.org/disease/hyperlipidaemia/): Hyperlipidaemia is an umbrella term which encompasses genetic and acquired disorders that raise lipid levels within the blood. Hyperlipidaemia does not independently cause clinical symptoms, rather can lead to other disorders that can manifest in possible life-threatening presentations. Most notably, hyperlipidaemia causes atherosclerosis which may lead to cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular disease.1
- [Henoch–Schönlein Purpura (IgA Vasculitis)](https://armandoh.org/disease/iga-vasculitis-henoch-schonlein-purpura/): Henoch–Schönlein purpura (HSP), now termed IgA vasculitis, is the most common systemic vasculitis in children, characterised by IgA1-dominant immune complex deposition in small vessels, particularly affecting the skin, joints, gastrointestinal tract, and kidneys. It predominantly occurs in children aged 3–10 years, with a slight male predominance, and often follows an upper respiratory tract infection. The incidence is approximately 10–30 per 100,000 children per year. The disease is usually self-limiting but can have significant morbidity when renal involvement occurs.
- [Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis ](https://armandoh.org/disease/granulomatosis-with-polyangiitis/): Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly Wegener’s granulomatosis) is a rare, chronic, systemic necrotising vasculitis affecting small-to-medium-sized vessels, characterised by granulomatous inflammation, necrotising vasculitis, and tissue destruction, primarily involving the upper and lower respiratory tracts and kidneys. It falls under the ANCA-associated vasculitides (AAV). Peak incidence is in the 5th–6th decade, with slight male predominance and higher prevalence in Caucasians.
- [Felty Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/disease/felty-syndrome/): Felty syndrome is a rare but serious extra-articular manifestation of long-standing, seropositive rheumatoid arthritis (RA), characterized by the classic triad of RA, splenomegaly, and neutropenia. It was first described in 1924 by the US-American physician Augustus Roi Felty. It most commonly occurs after at least 10 years of poorly controlled RA and is associated with severe joint damage and extra-articular features. It predominantly affects middle-aged Caucasian women and may signal more aggressive disease. Occurs in &lt;1% of patients with RA.
- [Osteomalacia / Rickets](https://armandoh.org/disease/osteomalacia-rickets/): Osteomalacia (adults) and rickets (children) are disorders of impaired bone mineralisation leading to soft, poorly mineralised bone. It arises when there is insufficient calcium–phosphate supply to the mineralising matrix due to vitamin D deficiency, calcium deficiency, phosphate deficiency (often FGF23-mediated). Nutritional rickets still occurs worldwide, while hypophosphataemic forms (e.g., XLH, tumour-induced osteomalacia) are rarer but important. Major complications include growth failure and limb deformity in children, pseudofractures and fragility fractures in adults, bone pain, proximal myopathy, and impaired quality of life.1,3,8,11
- [Knee Osteoarthritis (KOA)](https://armandoh.org/disease/knee-osteoarthritis-koa/): Knee osteoarthritis is a chronic, whole-joint disorder characterized by pain, stiffness, functional limitation and progressive structural change affecting cartilage, subchondral bone, synovium, menisci, ligaments and peri-articular muscles. Prevalence rises with age and obesity and contributes substantially to global disability; recent GBD analyses and reviews highlight knee OA as a leading cause of pain and years lived with disability worldwide. Clinically, diagnosis is often made without imaging using validated rules, and core first-line care is education + exercise + weight management.
- [Hypermobility Syndromes](https://armandoh.org/disease/hypermobility-spectrum-disorder/): Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (HSD) describes symptomatic joint hypermobility with musculoskeletal (and sometimes systemic) consequences in people who do not meet the 2017 diagnostic criteria for hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (hEDS) or another heritable connective-tissue disorder (HCTD). Prevalence of generalised joint hypermobility varies (≈2–35% depending on age/sex/ethnicity and cut-offs), with symptomatic states more common in females and in younger people; many present to primary care, sports, pain and rheumatology settings.&nbsp;
- [Goodpasture Syndrome (Anti-GBM disease)](https://armandoh.org/disease/goodpasture-syndrome/): Goodpasture syndrome, now more precisely termed anti-glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) disease, is a rare autoimmune small-vessel vasculitis affecting lungs and kidneys, typically manifesting with diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis.&nbsp;

## Videos
- [Urolithiasis – Pathogenesis, Presentation, and Management](https://armandoh.org/video/urolithiasis-pathogenesis-presentation-and-management/): Kidney stones (urolithiasis): causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention—learn how to spot symptoms, get the right imaging, and choose effective therapies. This video explains stone types—calcium oxalate/phosphate, struvite, urate, and cystine—why stones form from urine oversaturation, and which risk factors and infections drive each type. You’ll learn classic presentations like sudden flank-to-groin (loin-to-groin) colic, nausea, microscopic hematuria, and when fever or sepsis signals emergency care.
- [Viral Replication Enveloped vs Non-Enveloped Viruses](https://armandoh.org/video/viral-replication-enveloped-vs-non-enveloped-viruses/): Enveloped vs non-enveloped viruses: learn how the lipid envelope changes viral entry, release, stability, tropism, and replication strategies. This video breaks down the seven stages of viral replication—attachment, entry, uncoating, gene expression, genome replication, assembly, and release—highlighting key differences between enveloped viruses (influenza, HIV, herpes, coronaviruses) and non-enveloped viruses (adenovirus, HPV, rotavirus). You’ll learn how envelope glycoproteins mediate receptor binding and membrane fusion or endosomal fusion, why envelopes make viruses susceptible to detergents and alcohol, and how budding versus lytic release affects tissue damage and persistence. The guide explains genome-class–specific mechanisms: DNA viruses using nuclear transcription, positive-sense RNA acting as immediate mRNA, negative-sense and dsRNA relying on packaged RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, and retroviruses integrating via reverse transcription. Practical benefits include understanding targets for neutralizing antibodies, implications for disinfection and transmission routes (respiratory vs fecal-oral), and how viral structure informs vaccine and antiviral design. Clear examples and concise mechanistic steps make complex virology accessible for students, clinicians, and researchers who need a fast, applicable reference. Watch to solidify your grasp of viral life cycles, compare entry and release mechanisms, and immediately apply this knowledge to infection control, diagnostics, and therapeutic strategies—subscribe for more focused virology breakdowns.
- [Trimethoprim: Uses, Mechanism, Side Effects](https://armandoh.org/video/trimethoprim-uses-mechanism-side-effects/): Trimethoprim: a targeted antibiotic for UTIs and prostatitis that inhibits bacterial dihydrofolate reductase for rapid bacterial growth suppression. In this concise video you’ll learn how trimethoprim works at the molecular level, why it’s often paired with sulfamethoxazole for co-trimoxazole synergy, and which infections it reliably treats—especially uncomplicated cystitis, recurrent UTI prophylaxis and chronic prostatitis due to excellent prostatic and urinary penetration.
- [The Human Vertebra (Spine and Backbone)](https://armandoh.org/video/the-human-vertebra-spine-and-backbone-2/): Discover the anatomy and function of the vertebral column — cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae explained with clinical insights. This concise video breaks down the spine’s 33 vertebrae, core structures (vertebral body, arch, foramen, processes), intervertebral discs (annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus), and major ligaments that stabilize and protect the spinal cord. You’ll learn region-specific features: the cervical spine’s transverse foramina, atlas and axis for head movement; thoracic vertebrae with costal facets for rib articulation; lumbar vertebrae built for weight-bearing and flexion; the fused sacrum forming pelvic stability; and the coccyx as an attachment hub for pelvic floor muscles. The video highlights biomechanics—how discs absorb shock and allow bending and rotation—and clarifies common clinical conditions like kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis, and cervical spondylosis that produce pain and altered spinal mechanics. Viewers will gain a practical understanding of facet joints, spinous and transverse processes, vertebral canals, and how anatomical variation influences mobility and vulnerability to injury. Ideal for medical students, health professionals, fitness coaches, or anyone wanting a clear, actionable overview of spinal anatomy and its clinical relevance. Watch to improve your anatomical knowledge, inform safer exercise and rehabilitation strategies, and recognize structural causes of common back and neck pain. Subscribe and watch now to strengthen your spine knowledge and apply these insights to clinical practice, training, or self-care.
- [Testicular Torsion – Pathophysiology, Presentation, and Emergency Management](https://armandoh.org/video/testicular-torsion-pathophysiology-presentation-and-emergency-management/): Testicular torsion is a time-critical surgical emergency that causes sudden testicular pain and can lead to loss of the testis within hours. Learn how to recognize testicular torsion, distinguish it from epididymo-orchitis and other causes of acute scrotum, and act fast to maximize salvage.
- [Protein Structure and Function – Overview](https://armandoh.org/video/protein-structure-and-function-overview/): Proteins are the molecules that do most of the work in the body—learn protein structure, function, and clinical relevance. In this clear, engaging video you&#039;ll discover what proteins are (chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds), why amino acid order dictates shape and function, and how folding produces primary, secondary (alpha helices, beta sheets), tertiary, and quaternary structures. You&#039;ll learn how hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions drive folding, what causes denaturation and misfolding, and why that matters for diseases like sickle cell and protein-aggregation disorders.
- [ACL Tear Explained: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/acl-tear-explained-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment/): ACL tear: learn how to recognize, diagnose, and treat this common knee injury in athletes. ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) tears often occur during non-contact pivoting, sudden deceleration, or awkward landings and cause a pop, rapid swelling (hemoarthrosis), and functional instability—especially with cutting and pivoting movements. This video explains the mechanism of injury, key clinical features, and high-yield bedside tests such as the Lachman and pivot-shift tests, plus when to use radiographs and why MRI is the investigation of choice to confirm tears and associated meniscal or chondral damage.
- [Diagnostic Tests for Viral Infections | Serology, PCR and Viral Culture Explained](https://armandoh.org/video/diagnostic-tests-for-viral-infections-serology-pcr-and-viral-culture-explained/): Discover how PCR, antigen tests, viral culture, and serology work to diagnose viral infections — learn which test to use and when. This video breaks down PCR (including RT-PCR), rapid antigen tests, viral culture, and antibody serology, explaining how each detects virus, viral proteins, or the immune response, and why timing and sample type matter.
- [Pharmacokinetics – Drug absorption and distribution](https://armandoh.org/video/pharmacokinetics-drug-absorption-and-distribution/): Pharmacokinetics explained: learn ADME fundamentals—absorption, bioavailability, first-pass metabolism, and distribution—to understand how drugs enter, move through, and reach target tissues. This video dives into absorption routes (oral, IV, sublingual, IM, subcutaneous, transdermal), bioavailability concepts, and why first-pass liver metabolism and formulation, food, and gastric emptying change drug effectiveness. You’ll learn practical clinical implications—why IV gives 100% bioavailability and rapid onset, when sublingual dosing (eg, GTN for angina) avoids first-pass loss, and when oral drugs need higher doses due to reduced systemic exposure. The distribution segment explains how blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and biological barriers (blood–brain barrier, placenta, breast milk) determine where drugs go, which tissues are affected, and which molecules remain in plasma. Key technical terms—bioavailability, first-pass metabolism, protein binding, blood–brain barrier, volume of distribution (Vd)—are clearly defined with clinical examples (warfarin, heparin, digoxin). By the end, you’ll be able to predict how route, formulation, and patient factors alter onset, potency, and risk, and apply that knowledge to dosing and route selection. Watch to gain a concise, clinically focused foundation in pharmacokinetics that makes drug choice and administration clearer—stay tuned for part two covering metabolism and excretion.
- [Prostatitis Overview](https://armandoh.org/video/prostatitis-overview-2/): Prostatitis explained: learn the causes, diagnosis, and treatment options for acute bacterial prostatitis, chronic bacterial prostatitis, and chronic pelvic pain syndrome. This concise guide covers prostatitis classification, symptoms, tests, and tailored management so viewers understand when to seek care.
- [Pharmacokinetics Overview | ADME, Bioavailability, Half-Life &amp; Clearance](https://armandoh.org/video/pharmacokinetics-overview-adme-bioavailability-half-life-clearance/): Master pharmacokinetics quickly: ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion) explained with real-world examples and clinical relevance. In this concise video you’ll learn how drugs enter the body, reach tissues, are chemically transformed, and are removed—key concepts like bioavailability, first-pass metabolism, volume of distribution, protein binding, clearance, and half-life are clearly defined and applied.
- [Transient osteoporosis of the hip – pathophysiology &amp; diagnosis](https://armandoh.org/video/transient-hip-osteoporosis/): Transient osteoporosis of the hip causes sudden, severe groin or buttock pain and reversible bone marrow edema—learn how to spot, diagnose, and manage it. In this clear, clinically focused video you’ll discover the defining features of transient osteoporosis of the hip, why it’s distinct from general osteoporosis and avascular necrosis, and how MRI identifies diffuse femoral head and neck edema without collapse. Learn the suspected mechanisms—transient vascular disturbance, microvascular spasm, venous outflow obstruction, neurogenic and hormonal factors—and how these produce pain through increased intraosseous pressure and inflammation.
- [Viral structure – capsid, envelope and genome overview](https://armandoh.org/video/viral-structure-capsid-envelope-and-genome-overview/): Discover how viral structure dictates infection, immunity, and transmission — learn viral structure, genomes, capsids, envelopes, and replication basics. This concise explainer breaks down virus biology using clear analogies and key technical terms like capsid, nucleocapsid, positive-sense and negative-sense RNA, segmented genomes, reverse transcriptase, and viral glycoproteins. You’ll understand how genomes (DNA or RNA, single- or double-stranded, segmented or non-segmented) act as the “software” that hijacks host machinery, while capsids and envelopes serve as protective and delivery “hardware.” See why icosahedral and helical capsid symmetries matter, how envelopes derived from host membranes display spike glycoproteins that determine tissue tropism and vaccine targets, and why enveloped versus non-enveloped viruses differ in environmental stability and transmission routes. The video also explains viral enzymes packaged in virions—polymerases, proteases, reverse transcriptase—and why these are primary antiviral drug targets. Follow the predictable replication cycle from attachment and entry (fusion or endocytosis) through uncoating, replication, assembly, and release (budding or lysis), and learn how segmented genomes enable reassortment and major antigenic shifts with epidemiological impact. Perfect for students, healthcare professionals, and curious learners, this engaging overview clarifies complex concepts with practical applications for vaccine design, antiviral strategies, and understanding disease spread. Watch to build a solid foundation in virology and then continue to the next deep-dive video on replication dynamics and differences between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.
- [Bacteria Structure and Function Explained | Microbiology Basics](https://armandoh.org/video/bacteria-structure-and-function-explained-microbiology-basics/): Bacterial structure explained: learn bacterial cell envelope, Gram-positive vs Gram-negative, peptidoglycan, LPS, plasmids, ribosomes, capsules, flagella, and pili. This concise video breaks down bacterial anatomy and its clinical importance, showing how cell membranes and peptidoglycan walls determine gram stain, antibiotic susceptibility, and targets like penicillin; how lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipid A drive severe gram-negative sepsis; and how plasmids spread resistance genes such as ESBL and carbapenemases. Viewers will understand prokaryotic traits—nucleoid DNA, 70S ribosomes (30S/50S) as antibiotic targets, and rapid binary fission—so you can connect structure to function, pathogenesis, and treatment strategies. Key benefits: clear comparisons of gram-positive (thick peptidoglycan, penicillin-sensitive) versus gram-negative (outer membrane, LPS barrier), practical examples (Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus/MRSA, E. coli, Klebsiella, Neisseria, Salmonella, Haemophilus), and explanations of virulence factors like capsules (vaccine targets), flagella (motility), and pili (adherence and horizontal gene transfer). Whether you’re a student preparing for exams, a healthcare professional refreshing microbiology basics, or simply curious about how bacteria cause disease and resist antibiotics, this video offers actionable insights and memorable examples. Watch to strengthen your understanding of microbial structure–function links and improve diagnostic or treatment reasoning.
- [Epididymitis Explained | Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/epididymitis-explained-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment/): Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis, the structure behind the testis that stores and transports sperm. It is usually caused by infection, with sexually transmitted organisms more common in younger men and urinary tract bacteria more common in older men. Typical features include unilateral scrotal pain, swelling, tenderness, and redness, sometimes with urinary symptoms or urethral discharge. Diagnosis is mainly clinical, supported by urine tests, STI screening, and sometimes Doppler ultrasound, while testicular torsion must always be excluded. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, pain relief, rest, and scrotal support, and most patients improve quickly with appropriate care.
- [De Quervain’s Tenosynovitis: Thumb Wrist Pain (Finkelstein Test, Causes, Treatment)](https://armandoh.org/video/de-quervains-tenosynovitis-thumb-wrist-pain-finkelstein-test-causes-treatment/): De Quervain’s tenosynovitis is a painful condition affecting the tendons on the thumb side of the wrist, particularly the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis, as they pass through the first dorsal compartment. It commonly develops from repetitive thumb and wrist movements and is often seen in caregivers and new parents due to frequent lifting and holding. Symptoms usually include pain and tenderness along the radial side of the wrist, swelling, and discomfort with gripping, pinching, or twisting motions. A key clinical sign is a positive Finkelstein test, which reproduces sharp pain when the thumb is tucked into the palm and the wrist is bent toward the ulna. Diagnosis is mainly clinical, though ultrasound or MRI may help in unclear cases or when ruling out other conditions. Treatment typically involves activity modification, thumb splinting, pain relief, physiotherapy, and corticosteroid injection, while surgery may be considered for persistent cases. Early recognition and treatment usually lead to an excellent recovery.
- [Growth, Metabolism, and Survival of Bacteria / Microbe](https://armandoh.org/video/microbial-growth-metabolism-and-survival-pathophysiology/): Microbes survive anywhere by mastering nutrients, oxygen use, and flexible metabolism—learn how these strategies drive infection, persistence, and lab diagnostics. This video explains microbial nutrient needs (macronutrients, trace elements like iron and siderophores), energy and carbon strategies (phototrophs, chemotrophs, autotrophs, heterotrophs), and why most pathogens are chemo-heterotrophs. Discover how oxygen shapes metabolism—obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, microaerophiles, and aerotolerant species—plus the role of reactive oxygen species and defense enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase) in survival and diagnostic tests. Watch clear comparisons of aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation (ATP yields, end products like lactic acid and ethanol) and how these pathways inform culture results such as lactose fermentation on MacConkey agar. Learn microbial stress responses—heat shock proteins, urease-mediated acid neutralization by Helicobacter pylori, osmotic solutes, and ROS detox systems—and how cells enter survival modes: persister cells that tolerate antibiotics and endospores that withstand extreme conditions. Practical takeaways include why iron sequestration (nutritional immunity) influences infection, how metabolic traits underpin lab identification, and how persistence mechanisms cause chronic or relapsing infections. Whether you’re a student, clinician, or science enthusiast, this concise guide equips you to understand pathogen behavior, diagnostic clues, and targets for treatment. Watch now to deepen your grasp of microbial survival and its implications for disease control.
- [Plantar Fasciitis (Plantar Heel Pain): Causes, Diagnosis, Exercises &amp; Evidence-Based Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/plantar-fasciitis-plantar-heel-pain-causes-diagnosis-exercises-evidence-based-treatment/): Relieve heel pain fast: learn what plantar fasciitis is, why it hurts, and proven treatments to get you walking pain-free. Plantar fasciitis, a common cause of sharp heel and arch pain, stems from repetitive strain and microtears in the plantar fascia—the fibrous band that supports your foot arch. In this video you’ll learn clear symptoms (worse with first steps or after inactivity), common risk factors (ages 40–60, high arches, leg-length discrepancy, obesity, prolonged standing, diabetes), and important differential diagnoses like Achilles tendonitis, Morton&#039;s neuroma, and stress fractures.
- [Lysosome Explained: Structure, Function, Autophagy &amp; Clinical Correlates](https://armandoh.org/video/lysosome-explained-structure-function-autophagy-clinical-correlates/): Lysosomes: how they digest, recycle, and protect cells — learn lysosome structure, enzymes, formation, functions, and disease. Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles packed with hydrolytic enzymes (proteases, lipases, glycosidases, nucleases) that function in an acidic environment maintained by V-type ATPases. This video explains lysosome structure, how the Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum produce and target enzymes via mannose-6-phosphate tagging, and how endosome maturation creates active lysosomes. Viewers will learn the core processes lysosomes enable — intracellular digestion, autophagy, endocytosis, phagocytosis, immune defense, recycling of macromolecules, and their role in apoptosis — plus how lysosomal membrane integrity prevents cellular damage. The episode also covers clinical implications: lysosomal storage diseases like Tay–Sachs, Gaucher, Pompe, and Niemann–Pick, detailing enzyme deficiencies, substrate buildup, and resulting neurological, visceral, and muscular symptoms. Expect clear, practical explanations of mechanisms (proton pumps, enzyme classes, mannose-6-phosphate targeting), real-world applications for cell biology and medicine, and why lysosomal health matters for tissue function and immunity. Whether you’re a student, educator, or healthcare professional, this concise, engaging overview builds a solid foundation for understanding cellular waste management and related genetic disorders. Watch to master lysosomal biology and its medical relevance — subscribe for deeper dives into lysosomal storage diseases and therapeutic approaches.
- [Learn the Anterior Triangle of the Neck—Boundaries, Contents, Surface Landmarks &amp; Exams](https://armandoh.org/video/learn-the-anterior-triangle-of-the-neck-boundaries-contents-surface-landmarks-exams/): Discover the anterior triangle of the neck: clear, clinical anatomy for students and clinicians. Anterior triangle anatomy, boundaries, and key contents are explained with practical surgical and examination relevance.
- [Posterior Triangle of the neck—Boundaries, Contents, Nerve Blocks &amp; Surgical Landmarks](https://armandoh.org/video/posterior-triangle-of-the-neck-boundaries-contents-nerve-blocks-surgical-landmarks/): Explore the posterior triangle of the neck—its borders, subdivisions, key nerves and vessels, and critical clinical implications. In this concise anatomy video you’ll learn the precise boundaries of the posterior triangle (sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, clavicle), how the omohyoid divides it into the occipital and subclavian (omoclavicular) triangles, and which structures lie within each region. Discover the spinal accessory nerve (CN XI), supraclavicular sensory branches, superficial cervical lymph nodes, and the upper brachial plexus in the occipital triangle, and the subclavian artery and vein, brachial plexus trunks, and supraclavicular lymph nodes in the subclavian triangle. The video highlights high-yield clinical applications: recognizing accessory nerve injury signs (trapezius weakness, shoulder droop, scapular winging), performing cervical plexus or supraclavicular brachial plexus blocks, central venous access via the subclavian vein, and identifying lymphadenopathy including Virchow’s node that may signal systemic malignancy. It also explains thoracic outlet syndrome mechanics—compression between the clavicle and first rib—and why anatomic landmarks matter for safe surgery and examination. Clear visuals and step-by-step explanation make this essential for medical students, surgical trainees, and clinicians refreshing neck anatomy. Watch to confidently locate vital structures, anticipate clinical problems, and apply regional anesthesia and vascular access techniques with anatomical precision.
- [Acetabular Dysplasia (Hip Dysplasia): Symptoms, Imaging and Treatment &amp; Explained](https://armandoh.org/video/acetabular-dysplasia-hip-dysplasia-symptoms-imaging-and-treatment-explained/): Acetabular dysplasia causes shallow hip sockets and hip instability, leading to labral tears and early osteoarthritis. Learn clear diagnostic signs, treatment paths, and when surgery is needed.
- [Femoroacetabular Impingement Explained: Groin Pain, Labral Tears, Best Exercises &amp; Surgery](https://armandoh.org/video/femoroacetabular-impingement-explained-groin-pain-labral-tears-best-exercises-surgery/): Femoral acetabular impingement (FAI) causes early hip pain and joint damage—learn how to spot, diagnose, and treat CAM and pincer lesions. This clear, practical video explains what FAI is, who’s at risk, and the hallmark symptoms (groin pain, the “C-sign,” pain with flexion/internal rotation, clicking or locking). You’ll learn the pathophysiology behind CAM, pincer, and mixed morphologies, how repetitive microtrauma leads to labral tears and cartilage damage, and which exams and imaging—FABER/FADIR tests, AP and lateral x-rays, MRI/MR arthrogram, and CT—are used to confirm diagnosis and plan care. Discover conservative strategies including activity modification, targeted physiotherapy, NSAIDs, and diagnostic/therapeutic intra-articular injections, plus when hip arthroscopy with femoral osteoplasty, acetabular rim trimming, and labral repair becomes the best option. The video emphasizes early identification to preserve joint health and reduce the risk of early osteoarthritis, highlights differential diagnoses to consider, and covers preoperative imaging for surgical planning. Ideal for clinicians, athletes, and active adults seeking evidence-based guidance on symptoms, imaging, and treatment pathways. Watch to understand the benefits of timely intervention, practical rehab tips, and which patients are most likely to benefit from surgery—take control of hip pain and protect long-term function with informed decisions and early care.
- [Bunions (Hallux Valgus) – Causes, Symptoms &amp; Treatment Explained](https://armandoh.org/video/bunions-hallux-valgus-causes-symptoms-treatment-explained/): Learn how bunions (hallux valgus) form, cause pain, and what treatments really work — from footwear changes and physiotherapy to chevron, Lapidus, and Taylor surgeries. This clear, practical guide explains bunion anatomy, risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis, and stepwise management.
- [Osgood-Schlatter Disease: Teen Knee Pain Explained—Causes, Treatment &amp; Exercises](https://armandoh.org/video/osgood-schlatter-disease-teen-knee-pain-explained-causes-treatment-exercises/): Osgood-Schlatter disease causes painful swelling just below the knee where the patellar tendon attaches to the tibia, especially in adolescents during growth spurts. This video explains Osgood-Schlatter anatomy, symptoms, diagnosis, and practical treatment strategies to help young athletes recover faster.
- [Snapping Hip Syndrome Explained – Causes, Symptoms &amp; Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/snapping-hip-syndrome-explained-causes-symptoms-treatment/): Snapping hip syndrome (snapping hip, Coxa saltans) causes an audible or palpable snap around the hip during movement and can be painless or lead to pain, bursitis, tendinopathy, or labral damage. This video explains the three main types—external, internal, and intra‑articular—detailing their mechanisms, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment so viewers can identify causes and choose the right care.
- [Iliopsoas Tendinopathy Explained | Anterior Hip Pain Causes, Diagnosis &amp; Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/iliopsoas-tendinopathy-explained-anterior-hip-pain-causes-diagnosis-treatment/): Iliopsoas tendinopathy and bursitis cause persistent anterior hip pain—learn how to diagnose, treat, and prevent iliopsoas-related groin pain. This video explains anatomy, causes, symptoms, imaging, and management of iliopsoas tendonopathy and bursitis for clinicians, athletes, and active patients.
- [Microscopy Explained | Light, Phase Contrast, Fluorescence &amp; Electron Microscopy](https://armandoh.org/video/microscopy-explained-light-phase-contrast-fluorescence-electron-microscopy/): Discover how microscopes reveal the hidden microbial world—light, fluorescent, and electron microscopy explained with practical applications and diagnostic value. In this clear, engaging video you&#039;ll learn how magnification and resolution work, why staining and contrast techniques make bacteria visible, and which microscopy methods suit specific tasks: bright-field for basic morphology and gram stains; dark-field for delicate, transparent organisms like Borrelia; phase-contrast for live, unstained cells; fluorescence for targeted detection of microbes and proteins; and electron microscopy for nanometer-scale views of viruses and organelles.
- [Microbiology Stains Explained Simply | Gram Stain, Acid-Fast, Capsule &amp; Spore](https://armandoh.org/video/microbiology-stains-gram-acid-fast-capsule-spore-overview/): Learn how staining transforms invisible microbes into diagnostic clues with gram stain and acid-fast techniques — essential for identifying bacteria and guiding treatment. This video breaks down why staining is vital, how the gram stain differentiates gram-positive (purple) from gram-negative (pink) bacteria based on cell wall structure, and why that distinction directly impacts antibiotic selection. You’ll see the four steps of the gram stain—crystal violet, iodine mordant, alcohol decolorizer, and safranin counterstain—explained clearly with real-world examples like Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli.
- [Foot Anatomy: Bones, Joints, Arches, Muscles, Vessels &amp; Nerves](https://armandoh.org/video/foot-bones-overview/): Discover the bones of the foot—tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges—and learn practical clinical anatomy for diagnosing fractures and common pathologies. This video breaks down foot anatomy with clear explanations of the tarsal group (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiforms, cuboid), the five metatarsals, and the toe phalanges, plus the functional division into hindfoot, midfoot, and forefoot. You’ll understand how the calcaneus supports weight and anchors the Achilles, how the talus links foot to leg at the ankle, and how the navicular and cuneiforms serve as tendon attachment points. Key clinical insights cover calcaneal and talar fractures from high-energy trauma, the mechanics and consequences of tarsal coalition, and metatarsal injuries: stress fractures common in athletes, Jones fractures with poor blood supply and nonunion risk, avulsion fractures of the fifth metatarsal, shaft fractures from direct blows, and proximal fractures from crush injuries. The video highlights where injuries occur, why healing can be complicated, and how bone anatomy relates to tendon attachments and load transmission. Ideal for medical students, clinicians, and allied health professionals, this concise anatomy-and-clinical primer equips you to recognize patterns of injury, link symptoms to underlying structures, and appreciate functional implications for movement and weight-bearing. Watch to sharpen your diagnostic reasoning and apply anatomical knowledge to clinical scenarios—subscribe for more focused musculoskeletal lessons.
- [Morton’s Neuroma: Pathophysiology, Imaging &amp; Management](https://armandoh.org/video/mortons-neuroma-pathophysiology-imaging-management/): Morton’s neuroma causes sharp, burning forefoot pain and numbness between the toes—learn clear diagnosis, conservative treatments, and when to consider surgery. Morton’s neuroma is a compressive neuropathy of the common plantar digital nerve (most often in the third interspace) caused by repetitive compression, tight footwear, and altered biomechanics. This video explains anatomy, pathophysiology, classic symptoms (burning, electric shocks, feeling of a pebble or folded sock), and how to distinguish neuroma from metatarsalgia, stress fractures, bursitis, plantar plate injury, and inflammatory arthritis. Viewers will learn how clinicians diagnose Morton’s neuroma through focused history and exam, the role of ultrasound and MRI for confirmation, and key exam findings like Mulder’s sign. Practical management is covered stepwise: footwear modification (wide toe box, low heel), metatarsal pads and orthoses, activity changes, analgesics, and ultrasound-guided corticosteroid injections. Advanced nonsurgical options—alcohol sclerosis and radiofrequency ablation—are discussed, as well as surgical choices (decompression versus neurectomy), expected outcomes, and possible complications such as permanent toe numbness. The video emphasizes the importance of early recognition, biomechanical education, and forefoot load management to prevent chronic pain and restore function. Whether you’re a patient seeking relief or a clinician updating your approach, this concise guide delivers actionable diagnosis and treatment strategies to reduce pain and avoid unnecessary surgery. Watch to understand symptoms, confirm diagnosis, and choose effective, evidence-based interventions that help most people return to normal activity.
- [Inflammatory SI Joint Pain (Sacroiliitis) vs Mechanical: Key Clues](https://armandoh.org/video/sij-mimickers/): Discover how to recognize sacroiliitis, its causes, imaging signs, and key mimics to improve diagnosis and patient care. In this video we define sacroiliitis, explain primary causes like axial spondyloarthritis (including ankylosing spondylitis), psoriatic arthritis, IBD-related spondyloarthritis, and reactive arthritis, and show how inflammatory back pain presents (insidious onset, night pain, morning stiffness, improves with exercise). Learn the New York radiographic grading (0–4) and why pelvic x-rays can miss early disease—MRI with STIR or fat-suppressed T2 is preferred for detecting bone marrow edema and early erosions, while CT shows structural damage and bone scan is less specific.
- [Introduction to Sacroiliac Joint (SIJ) anatomy, pain and causes](https://armandoh.org/video/sij-anatomy/): Sacroiliac joint pain explained: learn causes, symptoms, and practical diagnosis tips for SIJ dysfunction and sacroiliitis. This video breaks down sacroiliac (SI) joint anatomy, why women—especially during pregnancy—are more vulnerable, and the key differences between inflammatory and mechanical causes. Viewers will understand the joint’s limited motion, stabilizing ligaments (notably the interosseous sacroiliac ligament), and how surrounding muscles influence symptoms.
- [An Approach to Sacroiliac Joint Pain (SIJ PAIN) – history, examination and investigations](https://armandoh.org/video/an-approach-to-sacroiliac-joint-pain-sij-pain-history-examination-and-investigations/): Sacroiliac joint pain: how to recognize causes, tests, and treatments to relieve deep unilateral buttock pain and restore pelvic stability. Learn the signs of sacroiliac (SI) joint pain, sacroiliitis, and how to tell mechanical issues from inflammatory or infectious causes. This video explains typical symptoms—deep one-sided buttock pain often radiating to the lateral thigh or groin—common triggers (single-leg stance, stairs, twisting, pregnancy), and red flags that suggest discogenic or neurological problems. You’ll see practical bedside provocation tests (FABER/PATRICK, Gaenslen’s, thigh thrust, pelvic compression/distraction, sacral thrust) and why a cluster of positive tests points to the SI joint as the primary pain generator. Imaging and labs are demystified: when X-ray, MRI with STIR, CT, ESR/CRP, HLA-B27, or image-guided diagnostic injections are useful. Management strategies focus on the main value: getting you moving with less pain—education, activity modification, targeted physiotherapy for lumbopelvic stabilization and glute/core strengthening, analgesics and short-term NSAIDs, pelvic belts in pregnancy, and image-guided corticosteroid injections for focal refractory pain. Advanced options (radiofrequency ablation, sacroiliac fusion) are reserved for multidisciplinary, refractory cases. For inflammatory sacroiliitis, learn when rheumatology, biologics, and long-term anti-inflammatory strategies are indicated. Clear, evidence-informed guidance helps patients and clinicians identify causes, choose appropriate tests, and apply effective conservative and interventional treatments—watch to improve diagnosis and speed recovery.
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- [Peritoneum Anatomy](https://armandoh.org/video/peritoneum-anatomy/)
- [Bactrim (Trimethoprim–Sulfamethoxazole) Explained: Uses, Side Effects, Mechanism of Action](https://armandoh.org/video/bactrim-trimethoprimaesulfamethoxazole-explained-uses-side-effects-mechanism-of-action/): Bactrim (co-trimoxazole) is a fixed-dose combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole that works through sequential inhibition of bacterial folate synthesis, producing synergistic bactericidal activity and broad-spectrum antimicrobial coverage. This video explains the mechanism of action in detail, including inhibition of dihydropteroate synthase and dihydrofolate reductase, and how disruption of folate metabolism impairs bacterial DNA and RNA synthesis. Learn which organisms are commonly covered—including Staphylococcus aureus (including some MRSA strains), E. coli, Klebsiella, Haemophilus influenzae, Nocardia, Pneumocystis jirovecii, and Toxoplasma gondii—and which pathogens are poorly covered, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus species, most anaerobes, and atypical organisms. The video reviews important clinical indications including urinary tract infections, prostatitis, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) treatment and prophylaxis, nocardiosis, cyclosporiasis, and selected skin and soft tissue infections. Gain practical insight into pharmacokinetics, including high oral bioavailability, wide tissue distribution, renal elimination, and the need for dose adjustment in renal impairment. The discussion also covers mechanisms of bacterial resistance, common adverse effects such as gastrointestinal upset, rash, hypersensitivity reactions, hyperkalemia, and elevated serum creatinine, as well as serious complications including Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, aplastic anemia, hemolytic anemia, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. Finally, learn the key contraindications, drug interactions, and monitoring considerations—including pregnancy, G6PD deficiency, severe renal or hepatic disease, sulfonamide allergy, and interactions with warfarin, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, potassium-sparing diuretics, and methotrexate. Clear, clinically focused, and practical, this video equips medical students, clinicians, and healthcare professionals with the knowledge needed to prescribe Bactrim safely and effectively while recognizing important adverse effects and monitoring requirements.
- [What Is Appendicitis? Symptoms, Causes &amp; Treatment Explained](https://armandoh.org/video/what-is-appendicitis-symptoms-causes-treatment-explained/): Appendicitis is a common and potentially serious condition where the appendix becomes inflamed, often due to a blockage or infection. It typically presents with sudden pain starting around the belly button and shifting to the lower right abdomen, along with nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and fever. If left untreated, the appendix may rupture, leading to peritonitis or sepsis. Diagnosis involves clinical examination, blood tests, and imaging (ultrasound or CT scan). Treatment usually requires surgical removal of the appendix (appendicectomy). Recognizing symptoms early can prevent complications and improve recovery.
- [Is my baby getting enough to eat? – Newborn feeding signs](https://armandoh.org/video/breastfeeding-or-formula-pros-and-cons-explained/): Is my baby eating enough? Learn clear feeding signs, diaper cues, weight milestones, and hunger signals to know your newborn is well nourished. In this video you&#039;ll discover how to tell if your baby is getting enough breast milk or formula by tracking diaper output, typical feeding frequency, weight patterns, and observable hunger cues. Learn what normal newborn stools look like (meconium to yellow seedy stools), the expected six to eight wet diapers by day five to seven, and why breastfed infants often nurse 8–12 times per 24 hours while formula-fed babies may feed every 2–4 hours. Understand early, active, and late hunger signs—rooting, hand-to-mouth movement, and increased crying—and how feeding behavior, steady weight gain after initial newborn weight loss, and alertness signal adequate intake. The video also covers warning signs that warrant contacting your pediatrician: few wet/dirty diapers, poor or no weight gain, excessive sleepiness, constant fussiness after feeds, or painful/ineffective breastfeeding. Practical, reassuring guidance helps new parents feed on demand, recognize hydration and growth markers, and seek timely support when needed. Watch to gain confidence in reading your baby’s cues, optimizing feeding routines, and protecting healthy growth and development—subscribe for more newborn feeding tips and expert advice.
- [How to Bathe a Newborn Baby | Baby Bathing Tips for New Parents](https://armandoh.org/video/how-to-bathe-a-newborn-baby-baby-bathing-tips-for-new-parents/): Learn how to safely bathe your newborn baby step by step. This baby bath tutorial covers when to start, how often to bathe your baby, sponge vs tub baths, and tips for keeping baby warm and calm during the bath. Perfect for first-time parents!
- [Thoracic Outlet Obstruction Explained | Causes, Symptoms, Tests &amp; Treatment](https://armandoh.org/video/thoracic-outlet-obstruction-explained-causes-symptoms-tests-treatment/): Thoracic Outlet Obstruction (TOS) is caused by nerve or vessel compression near the collarbone. Learn the key types—neurogenic, venous, and arterial—along with symptoms, anatomy, tests (Adson’s, Roos), and treatment.
This video is ideal for medical students, physios, and clinicians looking to master upper limb compression syndromes.
- [When and how to introduce solids to infants – Feeding guide](https://armandoh.org/video/when-how-to-start-solid-foods-for-your-baby-feeding-guide/): Wondering when to start solids for your baby? In this video, we guide you through signs of readiness, the best first foods, and tips for safely introducing solids alongside milk feeds. Learn what to look for, how to start, and common mistakes to avoid.
- [Feeding the newborn:  Is my baby eating enough?](https://armandoh.org/video/feeding-the-newborn-is-my-baby-eating-enough/): Is my baby eating enough? A common question for new parents! In this video, we break down the signs that your newborn is getting enough milk, whether you&#039;re breastfeeding or formula feeding.
Learn:
- How often babies should feed
- Wet and dirty nappy patterns
- Growth and weight gain expectations
- Hunger vs fullness cues
- When to seek help
Whether you&#039;re a first-time parent or just looking for reassurance, this video will guide you through newborn feeding basics in a simple, supportive way.
- [Crying and Sleeping in Babies | Why Newborns Cry and How to Help Them Sleep](https://armandoh.org/video/crying-and-sleeping-in-babies-why-newborns-cry-and-how-to-help-them-sleep/): This video explains the common reasons why babies cry and how their sleep patterns develop in the first months of life. Learn practical tips to soothe a crying baby and encourage healthy sleep habits. Whether you’re a new parent or caregiver, this guide will help you understand your baby’s needs and support their growth and development.
- [Burping in Babies – Why It Matters, Why it happens, How to Do It](https://armandoh.org/video/burping-in-babies-why-it-matters-why-it-happens-how-to-do-it/): Burping is an essential part of newborn care, helping babies release air swallowed during feeding. In this video, we explain why burping is important, demonstrate effective burping techniques for newborns and older babies, and discuss how often to burp during feeding. We also cover common concerns such as what to do if your baby won’t burp and signs that burping may no longer be needed. Perfect for new parents and caregivers seeking expert-backed guidance on infant feeding and digestion.
- [Understanding Frozen Shoulder (Adhesive capsulitis)](https://armandoh.org/video/understanding-frozen-shoulder-adhesive-capsulitis/): Frozen shoulder, medically known as adhesive capsulitis, is a condition characterised by stiffness, pain, and limited range of motion in the shoulder joint. It typically develops gradually and can significantly impact daily activities. The condition is often linked to inflammation and tightening of the shoulder capsule. Common in people aged 40 to 60, especially those with diabetes or recent shoulder injuries, frozen shoulder progresses through three stages: freezing, frozen, and thawing. Treatment includes physiotherapy, anti-inflammatory medications, and in some cases, corticosteroid injections or surgical intervention. Early diagnosis and management can improve outcomes.
- [Reye’s Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/video/reyes-syndrome/): Discover the key features of Reye’s Syndrome, a rare but life-threatening condition linked to aspirin use in children. This concise video covers its pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and emergency management—perfect for quick revision and exam prep.
- [Hiccups in Babies: Why do they do it so much?](https://armandoh.org/video/hiccups-in-babies-why-do-they-do-it-so-much/): Hiccups in infants are common and usually harmless, often caused by feeding, swallowing air, or a developing digestive system. Most infant hiccups resolve on their own and don’t require treatment, but burping and upright positioning can help reduce episodes.
- [Understanding the Cervical Spine](https://armandoh.org/video/understanding-the-cervical-spine/): Discover the essential structure and function of the cervical spine in this easy-to-understand, high-yield video. Learn about common cervical spine conditions, symptoms, and treatment options to help you better protect your neck and spine health. Perfect for students, patients, and anyone wanting a clear guide to cervical spine anatomy and care.
- [Intussusception](https://armandoh.org/video/intussusception/): Learn all about Intussusception, a life-threatening cause of bowel obstruction in infants and young children. This video covers classic symptoms like currant jelly stools, diagnosis with ultrasound, and key emergency treatments every medical student should know.

## Products
- [Edward Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/edward-syndrome/): Comprehensive visual overview of Edward syndrome (trisomy 18), explaining its genetic basis and major forms—nondisjunction, translocation, and mosaicism—along with prenatal and postnatal diagnosis, characteristic clinical features, and key principles of treatment, supportive care, and prognosis.
- [Intussusception](https://armandoh.org/shop/intussusception/): Comprehensive visual overview of intussusception, explaining the telescoping of one segment of bowel into another, its typical age group and common causes, classic clinical features such as intermittent abdominal pain, vomiting, abdominal mass, and red currant jelly stool, along with associated complications, investigations, imaging findings, and key management principles.
- [Congenital Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis](https://armandoh.org/shop/congenital-hypertrophic-pyloric-stenosis/): Concise visual overview of congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, explaining the relevant stomach anatomy, pyloric muscle hypertrophy and resulting gastric outlet obstruction, classic clinical features such as projectile non-bilious vomiting and poor weight gain, associated metabolic abnormalities, diagnostic findings, and key treatment steps including correction of electrolyte imbalance and pyloromyotomy.
- [Rett Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/rett-syndrome/): Concise visual overview of Rett syndrome, explaining its genetic basis in MECP2 mutations, inheritance patterns, effects on neuronal development, and the resulting neurodevelopmental features and clinical presentation, with emphasis on its predominance in females.
- [Trichomoniasis](https://armandoh.org/shop/trichomoniasis/): Comprehensive visual overview of trichomoniasis, explaining its cause as a genitourinary protozoal infection, typical symptoms in females and males, underlying pathophysiology, risk factors, complications, diagnostic methods including NAATs, and standard treatment and prevention approaches.
- [Helminths](https://armandoh.org/shop/helminths/): Comprehensive visual overview of helminths, explaining the major groups—flukes (trematodes), tapeworms (cestodes), and roundworms (nematodes)—along with their key structural features, transmission routes, comparative life cycles, methods of diagnosis, and general treatment principles.
- [Snapping Hip Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/snapping-hip-syndrome/): Comprehensive overview of snapping hip syndrome, outlining its underlying mechanisms and causes, classification into external, internal, and intra-articular types, characteristic clinical presentation, diagnostic approach and imaging findings, management options, and expected prognosis.
- [Microscopy](https://armandoh.org/shop/microscopy/): Concise visual overview of microscopy techniques, explaining the principles, uses, and distinguishing features of light microscopy, phase contrast microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and electron microscopy, helping learners understand how each method enhances visualization of cells, tissues, and microorganisms.
- [Microbiology Stains](https://armandoh.org/shop/microbiology-stains/): Clear visual overview of key microbiology staining techniques, explaining the principles, steps, and diagnostic value of Gram stain, acid-fast stain, capsule stain, and spore stain, with emphasis on how these methods help identify and differentiate microorganisms.
- [Carbapenem Antibiotics](https://armandoh.org/shop/carbapenem-antibiotics/): Comprehensive overview of carbapenem antibiotics, focusing on meropenem, imipenem, and ertapenem, and summarizing their beta-lactam structure, mechanism of action, resistance patterns, major clinical uses, pharmacology, and important toxicity and side-effect profiles.
- [Iliopsoas Tendinopathy](https://armandoh.org/shop/iliopsoas-tendinopathy/): Comprehensive overview of iliopsoas tendinopathy and bursitis, illustrating the underlying mechanism and pathophysiology, characteristic clinical presentation, diagnostic features, imaging findings on ultrasound and MRI, management options, and expected prognosis.
- [First 50 Founding Memebers](https://armandoh.org/shop/first-50-founding-memebers/)
- [Orbital VS Preorbital Cellulitis](https://armandoh.org/shop/orbital-vs-preorbital-cellulitis/): Comprehensive overview of orbital versus periorbital cellulitis, highlighting their anatomical differences, causes, clinical features, diagnostic clues, complications, and key treatment considerations.
- [Lysosomes](https://armandoh.org/shop/lysosomes/): Comprehensive overview of lysosomes, outlining their degradative functions, enzyme systems, and essential role in cellular homeostasis.
- [Golgi](https://armandoh.org/shop/golgi/): Essential reference on the Golgi complex, covering functional mechanisms, intracellular transport, and its importance in overall cell biology.
- [Endoplasmic Reticulum](https://armandoh.org/shop/endoplasmic-reticulum/): Essential reference on the endoplasmic reticulum, covering functional divisions, molecular processes, and its central role in cellular activity.
- [Nucleus](https://armandoh.org/shop/nucleus/): Comprehensive overview of the nucleus, outlining its structural components, genetic functions, and central role in cellular regulation.
- [Mitochondria](https://armandoh.org/shop/mitochondria/): Focused guide to mitochondrial biology, highlighting key functions, genome features, and their importance in energy regulation.
- [The cytoplasm and cell organelles](https://armandoh.org/shop/the-cytoplasm-and-cell-organelles/): Comprehensive overview of the cytoplasm and cell organelles, outlining structural components, intracellular functions, and their roles in maintaining cellular activity.
- [The Cell Membrane](https://armandoh.org/shop/the-cell-membrane/): Essential reference on the cell membrane, covering structural organization, functional significance, and foundational concepts in cell biology.
- [Epithelial Cells](https://armandoh.org/shop/epithelial-cells/): Focused guide to epithelial cells, highlighting key cell types, functional specializations, and their significance in tissue organization.
- [Medial Elbow Tendinopathy](https://armandoh.org/shop/medial-elbow-tendinopathy/): Focused guide to medial elbow tendinopathy, highlighting overuse mechanisms, clinical presentation, and effective rehabilitation strategies.
- [Connective Tissue](https://armandoh.org/shop/connective-tissue/): Comprehensive overview of connective tissue, detailing its cellular components, structural organization, and key functions in support and repair.
- [Lateral Epicondylosis (Tennis Elbow)](https://armandoh.org/shop/lateral-epicondylosis-tennis-elbow/): Focused guide to tennis elbow, highlighting overuse mechanisms, hallmark clinical findings, and effective rehabilitation strategies.
- [Carpal Tunnel Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/carpal-tunnel-syndrome/): Comprehensive overview of carpal tunnel syndrome, detailing median nerve anatomy, pathophysiology, and hallmark clinical features.
- [Tissues](https://armandoh.org/shop/tissues/): Essential reference on tissues, covering structural characteristics, functional roles, and foundational concepts in cell biology.
- [Dupuytren’s Contracture](https://armandoh.org/shop/dupuytrens-contracture/): Comprehensive overview of Dupuytren’s contracture, detailing palmar fascia anatomy, pathophysiology, and progressive finger contractures.
- [Osgood-Schlatter disease](https://armandoh.org/shop/osgood-schlatter-disease/): Comprehensive overview of Osgood-Schlatter disease, detailing tibial tuberosity anatomy, growth-related stress, and clinical presentation.
- [The foot](https://armandoh.org/shop/the-foot/): Focused guide to foot anatomy, highlighting key bones, ligaments, and biomechanical roles in weight-bearing and gait.
- [Bunion](https://armandoh.org/shop/bunion/): Focused guide to bunions, outlining hallmark forefoot pain, contributing biomechanical factors, and practical management approaches for active individuals.
- [Plantar fascitis](https://armandoh.org/shop/plantar-fascitis/): Essential reference on plantar fasciitis, covering underlying causes, functional limitations, and core principles for recovery and prevention.
- [Trigger finger](https://armandoh.org/shop/trigger-finger/): Essential reference on trigger finger, covering pathophysiology, functional impact, and core principles guiding orthopaedic care.
- [Medial ankle pain](https://armandoh.org/shop/medial-ankle-pain-2/): Essential reference on medial ankle pain, covering differential diagnoses, functional implications, and core approaches used in sports medicine and rheumatology.
- [Lateral ankle pain](https://armandoh.org/shop/lateral-ankle-pain/): Comprehensive overview of lateral ankle pain, detailing common soft-tissue injuries, biomechanical contributors, and key clinical evaluation points.
- [Foot Drop](https://armandoh.org/shop/foot-drop/): Focused guide to foot drop, highlighting peripheral nerve pathways, functional deficits, and essential clinical evaluation points.
- [Ankle Joint](https://armandoh.org/shop/ankle-joint/): Comprehensive guide to the ankle joint, detailing bone structures, ligaments, and functional biomechanics.
- [Shoulder Joint](https://armandoh.org/shop/shoulder-joint/): Focused guide to shoulder joint anatomy, highlighting key articulations, stabilizing structures, and biomechanical functions.
- [Osteonecrosis](https://armandoh.org/shop/osteonecrosis/): Essential reference on osteonecrosis, covering causes, structural changes, and core principles guiding orthopaedic intervention and rehabilitation.
- [Obesity](https://armandoh.org/shop/obesity/): Essential reference on obesity, covering pathophysiology, associated comorbidities, and interventions to support long-term health.
- [Tibia and Fibula](https://armandoh.org/shop/tibia-and-fibula/): Comprehensive overview of the tibia and fibula, detailing bone structure, key landmarks, articulations, and their roles in lower-limb stability and movement.
- [Hip Anatomy](https://armandoh.org/shop/hip-anatomy/): Essential reference on hip structure, covering major landmarks, joint function, and relevance in musculoskeletal health.
- [Transient Osteoporosis of the Hip](https://armandoh.org/shop/transient-osteoporosis-of-the-hip/): Essential reference on transient osteoporosis, covering structural changes, symptom patterns, and practical interventions for recovery and mobility restoration.
- [Piriformis Syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/piriformis-syndrome/): Focused guide to piriformis syndrome, highlighting contributing biomechanical factors, clinical presentation, and effective rehabilitation approaches.
- [Medulla Oblongata](https://armandoh.org/shop/medulla-oblongata/): Essential reference on the medulla oblongata, covering structural organization, pathway integration, and its significance in neurological assessment.
- [Patellofemoral syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/patellofemoral-syndrome/): Essential reference on patellofemoral syndrome, covering underlying causes, functional impact, and core strategies for recovery and performance optimization.
- [Trochanteric bursitis](https://armandoh.org/shop/trochanteric-bursitis/): Focused guide to trochanteric bursitis, highlighting biomechanical factors, hallmark symptoms, and key diagnostic and therapeutic considerations.
- [Acetabular impingement syndrome](https://armandoh.org/shop/acetabular-impingement-syndrome/): Essential reference on acetabular impingement, covering structural abnormalities, pathophysiology, and practical interventions for pain relief and mobility restoration.
- [Femoral shaft fracture](https://armandoh.org/shop/femoral-shaft-fracture/): Comprehensive overview of femoral shaft fractures, detailing mechanisms of injury, fracture patterns, and essential principles of orthopaedic management.
- [Neck of femur fracture](https://armandoh.org/shop/neck-of-femur-fracture/): Focused guide to femoral neck fractures, highlighting mechanisms of injury, clinical presentation, and treatment considerations in geriatric patients.
- [Acetabular dysplasia](https://armandoh.org/shop/acetabular-dysplasia/): Focused guide to acetabular dysplasia, highlighting risk factors, characteristic symptoms, and diagnostic and management strategies.

## Categories
- [Anaemias](https://armandoh.org/subjects/haematology/anaemias/)
- [Anaphylaxis and Hypersensitivity Reactions](https://armandoh.org/subjects/immunology/anaphylaxis-hypersensitivity/)
- [Anatomy](https://armandoh.org/subjects/anatomy/)
- [Antepartum (During Pregnancy)](https://armandoh.org/subjects/obstetrics-gynecology/obstetric-conditions/antepartum/)
- [Arthroplasty (Joint Replacement Surgery)](https://armandoh.org/subjects/orthopaedics/arthroplasty-joint-replacement-surgery/)
- [Autoinflammatory Syndromes](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/autoinflammatory-syndromes/)
- [Biochemistry](https://armandoh.org/subjects/biochemistry/)
- [Bleeding and Clotting Disorders](https://armandoh.org/subjects/haematology/bleeding-clotting-disorders/)
- [Bone and Mineral Disorders](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/bone-mineral-disorders/)
- [Calcium, Bone, and Mineral Metabolism Disorders](https://armandoh.org/subjects/endocrinology/calcium-bone-metabolism/)
- [Cardiac Arrhythmias](https://armandoh.org/subjects/cardiology/cardiac-arrhythmias/)
- [Cardiology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/cardiology/)
- [Cardiothoracic Surgery](https://armandoh.org/subjects/cardiothoracic-surgery/)
- [Cardiovascular Emergencies](https://armandoh.org/subjects/critical-care-medicine/cardiovascular-emergencies/)
- [Cell Biology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/cell-biology/)
- [Chemistry](https://armandoh.org/subjects/chemistry/)
- [Clinical Anatomy](https://armandoh.org/subjects/clinical-anatomy/)
- [Colorectal Surgery](https://armandoh.org/subjects/colorectal-surgery/)
- [Connective Tissue Diseases](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/connective-tissue-diseases/)
- [Critical Care Medicine](https://armandoh.org/subjects/critical-care-medicine/)
- [Crystal Arthropathies](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/crystal-arthropathies/)
- [Dermatology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/dermatology/)
- [Diabetes Mellitus](https://armandoh.org/subjects/endocrinology/diabetes-mellitus/)
- [Early Pregnancy](https://armandoh.org/subjects/obstetrics-gynecology/obstetric-conditions/early-pregnancy/)
- [Ears, Nose, and Throat](https://armandoh.org/subjects/ent/)
- [Eczematous (Dermatitis)](https://armandoh.org/subjects/dermatology/eczematous-dermatitis/)
- [Endocrinology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/endocrinology/)
- [Fibromyalgia and Chronic Pain Syndromes](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/fibromyalgia-chronic-pain/)
- [Gastroenterology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/gastroenterology/)
- [Gastrointestinal / Hepatic emergencies](https://armandoh.org/subjects/critical-care-medicine/gastrointestinal-hepatic-emergencies/)
- [General Surgery](https://armandoh.org/subjects/general-surgery/)
- [Genetics](https://armandoh.org/subjects/genetics/)
- [Genitourinary &amp; STIs](https://armandoh.org/subjects/infectious-disease-microbiology/genitourinary-stis/)
- [Genitourinary Cancers](https://armandoh.org/subjects/oncology/genitourinary-cancers/)
- [Genitourinary Surgical Emergencies](https://armandoh.org/subjects/critical-care-medicine/genitourinary-surgical-emergencies/)
- [Geriatrics](https://armandoh.org/subjects/geriatrics/)
- [Glomerular Diseases (Glomerulopathies)](https://armandoh.org/subjects/nephrology/glomerular-diseases/)
- [Gynaecological Conditions](https://armandoh.org/subjects/obstetrics-gynecology/gynaecological-conditions/)
- [Haematological / Oncological emergencies](https://armandoh.org/subjects/critical-care-medicine/haematological-oncological-emergencies/)
- [Haematology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/haematology/)
- [Heart Failure](https://armandoh.org/subjects/cardiology/heart-failure/)
- [Immunodeficiency Disorders](https://armandoh.org/subjects/immunology/immunodeficiency-disorders/)
- [Immunology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/immunology/)
- [Infection &amp; Sepsis](https://armandoh.org/subjects/orthopaedics/infection-sepsis/)
- [Infectious Disease &amp; Immunisation](https://armandoh.org/subjects/geriatrics/infectious-disease-immunisation/)
- [Infectious Disease and Microbiology](https://armandoh.org/subjects/infectious-disease-microbiology/)
- [Infectious Respiratory Diseases](https://armandoh.org/subjects/respiratory-2/infectious-respiratory-diseases/)
- [Infectious Skin Diseases](https://armandoh.org/subjects/dermatology/infectious-skin-diseases/)
- [Inflammatory and Autoimmune Conditions](https://armandoh.org/subjects/respiratory-2/inflammatory-autoimmune-lung/)
- [Inflammatory Arthritis](https://armandoh.org/subjects/rheumatology/inflammatory-arthritis/)

## Tags
- [1.25](https://armandoh.org/tag/1-25/)
- [16](https://armandoh.org/tag/16/)
- [2](https://armandoh.org/tag/2/)
- [22q11 deletion syndrome](https://armandoh.org/tag/22q11-deletion-syndrome/)
- [26](https://armandoh.org/tag/26/)
- [3 BPG](https://armandoh.org/tag/3-bpg/)
- [3 types of](https://armandoh.org/tag/3-types-of/)
- [45X mosaicism](https://armandoh.org/tag/45x-mosaicism/)
- [5HT3 antagonists (ondansetron)](https://armandoh.org/tag/5ht3-antagonists-ondansetron/)
- [5Ps of examination](https://armandoh.org/tag/5ps-of-examination/)
- [6P&#039;s of arterial disease](https://armandoh.org/tag/6ps-of-arterial-disease/)
- [A and P](https://armandoh.org/tag/a-and-p/)
- [abcess mechanism of disease](https://armandoh.org/tag/abcess-mechanism-of-disease/)
- [abdominal aortic aneurysm](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-aortic-aneurysm/)
- [abdominal emergencies](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-emergencies/)
- [abdominal organs](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-organs/)
- [abdominal pain](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-pain/)
- [abdominal pain causes](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-pain-causes/)
- [abdominal vascular anatomy](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-vascular-anatomy/)
- [abdominal wall](https://armandoh.org/tag/abdominal-wall/)
- [abducens](https://armandoh.org/tag/abducens/)
- [abnormal heart rate](https://armandoh.org/tag/abnormal-heart-rate/)
- [abnormal heart rhythm](https://armandoh.org/tag/abnormal-heart-rhythm/)
- [abosorbing lipid](https://armandoh.org/tag/abosorbing-lipid/)
- [abscess](https://armandoh.org/tag/abscess/)
- [Abscess formation](https://armandoh.org/tag/abscess-formation/)
- [abscess pathophysiology](https://armandoh.org/tag/abscess-pathophysiology/)
- [absorption](https://armandoh.org/tag/absorption/)
- [absorption in small intestine](https://armandoh.org/tag/absorption-in-small-intestine/)
- [absorption of alcohol](https://armandoh.org/tag/absorption-of-alcohol/)
- [access to care](https://armandoh.org/tag/access-to-care/)
- [accessory](https://armandoh.org/tag/accessory/)
- [accumation](https://armandoh.org/tag/accumation/)
- [ACE inhibitor](https://armandoh.org/tag/ace-inhibitor/)
- [ACE inhibitors](https://armandoh.org/tag/ace-inhibitors/)
- [ACE Inhibitors and Beta Blockers](https://armandoh.org/tag/ace-inhibitors-and-beta-blockers/)
- [acetabular dysplasia](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetabular-dysplasia/)
- [acetate](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetate/)
- [acetoacetate](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetoacetate/)
- [acetone](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetone/)
- [acetyl](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetyl/)
- [Acetyl CoA](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetyl-coa/)
- [Acetyl CoA and ketones](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetyl-coa-and-ketones/)
- [Acetyl CoA transport](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetyl-coa-transport/)
- [acetylcholine](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetylcholine/)
- [acetylcholine receptor](https://armandoh.org/tag/acetylcholine-receptor/)
- [achalasia](https://armandoh.org/tag/achalasia/)
- [achalasia diagnosis](https://armandoh.org/tag/achalasia-diagnosis/)
- [achalasia pathophysiology](https://armandoh.org/tag/achalasia-pathophysiology/)
- [achalasia surgery](https://armandoh.org/tag/achalasia-surgery/)