Medical science, drawn into focus.

Renal Cell Carcinoma

Overview Renal cell carcinomas (originate within the renal cortex) are responsible for 85% of all primary renal neoplasms. Transitional cell carcinomas of the renal pelvis are the next most common (~8%). Renal medullary carcinoma is a rare form of RCC seen in sickle cell disease. The most common pathological type of renal cell carcinoma is clear cell…

Valvular Heart Disease

Overview Valvular disease can come to clinical attention due to stenosis, insufficiency (regurgitation/incompetence) or both. Stenosis is the failure of a valve to open completely, which impedes forward flow. Insufficiency results from failure of a valve to close completely, thereby allows reversed flow.  Doppler echocardiogram is the best technique for assessing patients with valvular heart disease, but…

Cerebral Palsy

Overview Cerebral palsy is a non-Progressive neurological disorder. Usually with significant motor component. Clinical presentation overtime changes due to increased developmental challenges.Cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common physical disability in childhood. Prevalence is about 1 – 3/ 1000 live births. Cerebral palsy can affect: Cerebral cortex – causing spasticity Basal ganglia – causing dyskinesia…

Paediatric Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Overview Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) also known as hyaline membrane disease is a pulmonary disease resulting from immature lung development and surfactant deficiency. Most frequently seen in preterm infants, the clinical presentation is characterized by signs of respiratory distress including nasal flaring, tachypnea, and grunting (an expiratory sound that is heard as the infant exhales…

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Overview Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a non-malignant enlargement of the prostate gland. There is an increase in stromal and glandular components. Anatomy The prostate is an male organ that sits inferior to the bladder and surrounds the first part of the urethra. It is oval shaped and approximately 4cm thick. The prostate gland is…

Hypermobility Syndromes

Overview Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (HSD) describes symptomatic joint hypermobility with musculoskeletal (and sometimes systemic) consequences in people who do not meet the 2017 diagnostic criteria for hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (hEDS) or another heritable connective-tissue disorder (HCTD). Prevalence of generalised joint hypermobility varies (≈2–35% depending on age/sex/ethnicity and cut-offs), with symptomatic states more common in females…

Osteomalacia / Rickets

Overview Osteomalacia (adults) and rickets (children) are disorders of impaired bone mineralisation leading to soft, poorly mineralised bone. It arises when there is insufficient calcium–phosphate supply to the mineralising matrix due to vitamin D deficiency, calcium deficiency, phosphate deficiency (often FGF23-mediated). Nutritional rickets still occurs worldwide, while hypophosphataemic forms (e.g., XLH, tumour-induced osteomalacia) are rarer…

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