Overview
Critical limb ischaemia (CLI) represents grade III and IV chronic limb ischaemia (based on the Fontaine classification). It presents with rest pain, breakdown of skin and inability to heal an injury, which can lead to infection or gangrene. If left untreated it may be necessary to amputate the affected limb. CLI develops in 1% to 3% of patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD).
Definition
Critical limb ischaemia is a severe form of chronic lower limb ischaemia, which presents with tissue wounds like ulcers and gangrene, and rest pain lasting more than 2 weeks, which gets worse at night and is relieved by hanging the limb dependent.
Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a chronic obstruction of arteries supplying the extremities, usually caused by atherosclerosis; it is more common in the lower limb.
Chronic limb ischaemia is a form of PAD characterised by progressive reduction of arterial blood flow to the limbs resulting in cessation of nutrient and oxygen delivery, leading to symptoms such as pain and tissue loss.
Chronic limb ischaemia can be classified using the Fontaine classification:
I – asymptomatic
II – intermittent claudication
III – rest pain
IV – ulcers/gangrene
Grades III and IV are classified as Critical Limb Ischaemia.
Aetiology
- Atherosclerosis (most common)
- Buerger’s disease (Thromboangiitis obliterans)
- Popliteal artery entrapment syndrome
- Thoracic outlet syndrome
Risk Factors
- Age
- Smoking
- High Cholesterol
- Chronic kidney disease
- Hypertension
- Diabetes
Pathophysiology
Progressive narrowing and occlusion of arteries, mostly due to atherosclerosis, causes reduced blood flow to the extremities. Over time, there is impaired oxygen delivery, even at rest, which leads to tissue hypoxia. The tissue relies on anaerobic respiration, which leads to build up of lactic acid that activities pain receptors causing rest pain. Prolonged hypoxia results in cell death causing symptoms like non-healing ulcers and gangrene.
Clinical manifestation
- Rest pain unrelieved by analgesia
- Typically worsens at night and during elevation of the limb
- Relieved by hanging the limb dependent (eg. hanging limb over the side of the bed or standing up) as gravity increases blood flow to the limb
- Painful non-healing ulcers – mainly on toes and heels
- Gangrene that usually starts in distal part of limb
Side note
Occlusion of the aortoiliac segment can cause erectile dysfunction (Leriche syndrome).
Examination
- Limb positioned dependent, muscle wasting, ulcers, gangrene, nail atrophy, skin changes (dryness and hair loss)
- Arterial pulses: weak or absent pulses distally to diseased artery
- Buerger’s test positive with angle <20°: pallor on elevation, rubor on dependency
- Neurological exam: sensory loss and motor weakness
- Prolonged capillary refill time
Remember
Hanging the limb dependent causes increased blood flow to the limb, due to the forces of gravity, which helps relieve pain.
Differential diagnosis
- Diabetic neuropathy – causes sensory loss, pain worse at night and ulcers
- Nerve root entrapment (eg. entrapment of the sciatica can cause radiculopathy down to calve muscles)
- Ulcers associated with hematologic disease (eg. Sickle cell disease) – cause ulceration in feet
- Peripheral sensory neuropathy – due to vitamin B 12 deficiency or alcohol consumption
- Venous ulcers – due to raised venous pressure over a long period, commonly over medial malleolus
- Inflammation (eg. rheumatoid arthritis, gout, plantar fasciitis) – causes pain at rest in distal limb
Side note
Pyoderma gangrenosum – skin ulceration that is associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease; patient will complain of additional symptoms like diarrhea and abdominal pain.
Investigations
Assess the severity of ischaemia:
- First line: Ankle-brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) – less than 0.4 indicates CLI
- In calcified vessels (eg. due to diabetic disease) ABPI is elevated and is therefore unreliable, so do:
- Toe pressure – less than 30mmHg indicates CLI
- Ankle pressure – less than 50mmHg indicates CLI
- Transcutaneous oxygen pressure (TcPO2) – less than 20mmHg suggests CLI
Segmental blood pressure – measured at various points along the limb to help localise disease:
- A drop >20-30 mmHg between adjacent cuffs suggests significant arterial obstruction between those two levels.
- The site of greatest pressure drop indicates the location of significant stenosis or occlusion
Imaging – to precisely identify location and severity of all arterial stenoses involved:
- Duplex ultrasound – first choice for assessing infra-inguinal arterial disease
- Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) – usually superior for imaging the aortoiliac segment
- Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) – interventional, carries risk of injury and renal toxicity of contrast, good for popliteal and distal vessel assessment
- Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)
- Abdominal ultrasound – to rule out aneurysm
ABPI (Ankle-brachial Pressure Index) is used to assess blood flow in legs. It is calculated by dividing the systolic blood pressure at the ankle by the systolic blood pressure at the arm (brachial artery). ABPI values:
- 1.0 – 1.4 – normal
- 0.9 to 0.5 – intermittent claudication
- <0.5 – critical limb ischaemia
- >1.4 – calcified vessels
Treatment
Risk factor modification:
- Stop smoking
- Oral statin
- Control BP and glucose
- Antiplatelet therapy (aspirin or clopidogrel)
Revascularise the limb via endovascular treatment or surgery:
- Endovascular treatment
- Angioplasty + stent
- Mostly done in aorto-iliac segment or superficial femoral
- Not in popliteal and tibial due to high risk of occlusion
- Useful in short stenoses/occlusions
- Angioplasty + stent
- Surgery:
- Bypass graft
- Preferred for long segment, multilevel disease
- If endovascular approach fails
- Bypass graft
Side note
Angiosome is a 3-dimensional block of tissue fed by specific arterial and venous source. In revascularisation, targeting the artery that supplies the affected angiosome (known as direct revascularisation) results in faster healing and reduced risk of major amputation.
Amputation (if limb is non-viable):
- Failed revascularisation
- Extensive gangrene or infection
Complications and Prognosis
Complications
- Infection (in ulcerated and gangrenous areas) – can lead to sepsis
- Psychosocial issues and depression (if limb is amputated)
- Higher risk of atherosclerotic morbidity – stroke and coronary artery disease
- Myalgia (side effect of statins)
- Bleeding (side effect of aspirin and clopidogrel)
Prognosis
Mortality rate:
- Up to 20% within 6 months
- Up to 50% within the first year
- Exceeding 50% at 5 years
Major amputation rate:
- Ranges between 10% to 40% in the first year
References
1. Peripheral vascular disease. In: McLatchie G, Borley N, Agarwal A, Jeyarajah S, Harries R, Weerakkody R, et al., editors. Oxford Handbook of Clinical Surgery: Oxford University Press; 2022. p. 0. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198799481.003.0019
2. Shishehbor MH, White CJ, Gray BH, Menard MT, Lookstein R, Rosenfield K, et al. Critical Limb Ischemia: An Expert Statement. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2016;68(18):2002-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.04.071
3. Armstrong EJ, Armstrong DG. Vascular Disease Patient Information Page: Critical limb ischemia. Vascular Medicine. 2021;26(2):228-31. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1358863X20987611?utm
4. Eun JC, Hiatt WR, Glebova NO. Nonatherosclerotic limb ischemia: Prompt evaluation and diagnosis. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 2016;83(10):741-51. https://www.ccjm.org/content/ccjom/83/10/741.full.pdf
5. D 2.3 – Differential diagnosis of critical limb ischemia. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2000;31(1, Supplement 1):S184-S8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0741-5214(00)81030-7
6. Teraa M, Conte MS, Moll FL, Verhaar MC. Critical Limb Ischemia: Current Trends and Future Directions. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2016;5(2):e002938. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.115.002938
Discussion