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Hypermobility Syndromes

Overview Hypermobility Spectrum Disorder (HSD) describes symptomatic joint hypermobility with musculoskeletal (and sometimes systemic) consequences in people who do not meet the 2017 diagnostic criteria for hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (hEDS) or another heritable connective-tissue disorder (HCTD). Prevalence of generalised joint hypermobility varies (≈2–35% depending on age/sex/ethnicity and cut-offs), with symptomatic states more common in females…

Anklylosing Spondylitis (AS)

Overview Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic, progressive inflammatory arthritis that primarily affects the axial skeleton, especially the sacroiliac joints and spine. It is a subtype of the seronegative spondyloarthropathies and is characterised by inflammatory back pain, morning stiffness, and eventual spinal fusion in severe cases. AS often presents in young adults, typically males, and…

Community Acquired Pneumonia

Overview Community acquired pneumonia occur in individuals who are not in hospital (or have been in hospital in the past 48 hours) and who are not significantly immunocompromised. The World Health Organization estimates that lower respiratory tract infection is the most common infectious cause of death in the world. Choice of antibiotics are usually empirical…

Non-Febrile Seizures (Epilepsy)

This section will mainly focus on Paediatric Epilepsy (NOT FEBRILE SEIZURES) Children and Adults can have seizures because of metabolic disturbances, trauma or being in a febrile state. This does mean they have epilepsy. Epilepsy is a condition characterised by the tendency for recurrent seizures. Presents when at least 2 unprovoked seizures occur >24 hours apart. Overview…

Renal Cell Carcinoma

Overview Renal cell carcinomas (originate within the renal cortex) are responsible for 85% of all primary renal neoplasms. Transitional cell carcinomas of the renal pelvis are the next most common (~8%). Renal medullary carcinoma is a rare form of RCC seen in sickle cell disease. The most common pathological type of renal cell carcinoma is clear cell…

Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome

Overview Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is a rare autoimmune disorder of the presynaptic neuromuscular junction. It causes impaired acetylcholine release, producing the characteristic triad of proximal muscle weakness, reduced reflexes and autonomic dysfunction. LEMS may occur as a paraneoplastic syndrome—most commonly associated with small-cell lung cancer (SCLC)—or as a non-tumour-associated autoimmune disorder.  Neuromuscular junction: connection…

Hydroxyapatite Deposition Disease 

Overview Hydroxyapatite Deposition Disease (HADD) is a crystal-induced tendinopathy caused by the deposition of hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals, typically in periarticular soft tissues, especially tendons and bursae. The shoulder (supraspinatus tendon) is most commonly affected. It often presents between ages 30–60, more frequently in women. While often asymptomatic, it can cause acute pain and functional limitation…

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